Table Of ContentEMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND THE LAW
OF THE SEA
Autonomousvesselsandrobotics,artificialintelligence,andcybersecurity
are transforming international shipping and naval operations. Likewise,
blockchainoffersnewefficienciesforcompliancewithinternationalship-
ping records, while renewable energy from currents and waves and
offshore nuclear power stations open opportunities for new sources of
power within and from the sea. These and other emerging technologies
pose a challenge for the governance framework of the law of the sea,
whichisadaptingtoaccommodatetheacceleratingratesofglobalchange.
Thisvolumeexamineshowthelatesttechnologicaladvancesandmarine
sciencesarereshapingtheinterpretationandapplicationofthelawofthe
sea. The authors explore the legality of new concepts for military oper-
ationsonthecontinentalshelf,suggestremotesensingmethodologiesfor
delimitation of maritime boundaries, and offer a legal roadmap for
ensuringmaritimecybersecurity.
is Charles H. Stockton Professor of International
Maritime Law and Chair of the Stockton Center for International Law
at the U.S. Naval War College, and also Visiting Professor of Law and
John Harvey Gregory Lecturer on World Organization at Harvard Law
School.
is Director ofLawofthe Sea Research Center atthe
KoreaMaritimeInstituteandleadstheYeosuAcademyoftheLawofthe
Sea. Previously he was a visiting scholar in the Stockton Center for
International Law at the U.S. Naval War College and the University of
RhodeIsland.
Published online by Cambridge University Press
Published online by Cambridge University Press
EMERGING TECHNOLOGY
AND THE LAW OF THE SEA
Edited by
JAMES KRASKA
USNavalWarCollege
YOUNG KIL PARK
KoreaMaritimeInstitute
Published online by Cambridge University Press
UniversityPrintingHouse,CambridgeCB28BS,UnitedKingdom
OneLibertyPlaza,20thFloor,NewYork,NY10006,USA
477WilliamstownRoad,PortMelbourne,VIC3207,Australia
314–321,3rdFloor,Plot3,SplendorForum,JasolaDistrictCentre,NewDelhi–110025,India
103PenangRoad,#05-06/07,VisioncrestCommercial,Singapore238467
CambridgeUniversityPressispartoftheUniversityofCambridge.
ItfurtherstheUniversity’smissionbydisseminatingknowledgeinthepursuitof
education,learning,andresearchatthehighestinternationallevelsofexcellence.
www.cambridge.org
Informationonthistitle:www.cambridge.org/9781316517420
DOI:10.1017/9781009042178
©CambridgeUniversityPress2022
Thispublicationisincopyright.Subjecttostatutoryexception
andtotheprovisionsofrelevantcollectivelicensingagreements,
noreproductionofanypartmaytakeplacewithoutthewritten
permissionofCambridgeUniversityPress.
Firstpublished2022
AcataloguerecordforthispublicationisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary.
LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData
Names:Kraska,James,editor.|Park,YoungKil,1971–editor.
Title:Emergingtechnologyandthelawofthesea/editedbyJamesKraska,UnitedStatesNaval
WarCollege,Newport,RhodeIsland;YoungKilPark,KoreaMaritimeInstitute.
Description:Cambridge,UnitedKingdom;NewYork,NY:CambridgeUniversityPress,2022.|
Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.
Identifiers:LCCN2022008796(print)|LCCN2022008797(ebook)|ISBN9781316517420
(hardback)|ISBN9781009045438(paperback)|ISBN9781009042178(epub)
Subjects:LCSH:Lawofthesea.|Technologicalinnovations–Lawandlegislation.|
Marinesciences–Research–Lawandlegislation.
Classification:LCCKZA1145.E442022(print)|LCCKZA1145(ebook)|
DDC341.4/5–dc23/eng/20220430
LCrecordavailableathttps://lccn.loc.gov/2022008796
LCebookrecordavailableathttps://lccn.loc.gov/2022008797
ISBN978-1-316-51742-0Hardback
CambridgeUniversityPresshasnoresponsibilityforthepersistenceoraccuracy
ofURLsforexternalorthird-partyinternetwebsitesreferredtointhispublication
anddoesnotguaranteethatanycontentonsuchwebsitesis,orwillremain,
accurateorappropriate.
Published online by Cambridge University Press
CONTENTS
List of Contributors page xi
Preface xix
1 Emerging Technology and Maritime Boundary
Dispute Resolution 1
,
1.1 Introduction 2
1.1.1 ProgressintheDelimitationofMaritimeBoundaries 3
1.1.2 EvolutionofOceanBoundary-Making 7
1.1.3 DefinitionofBaselines 9
1.2 MaritimeBoundaryDelimitationandChangingTechnologies 11
1.2.1 EmergingTechnologiesforDetectingtheEdgeoftheLand
(Baselines) 13
1.2.1.1 ChartsandChangingCoasts 13
1.2.1.2 AdvancesinGeodesyfortheDeterminationof
Baselines,LimitsandBoundaries 17
1.2.1.3 SatRecon(4DSSM)Four-Dimensional
Satellite-DerivedSeafloorMorphology 20
1.2.1.4 EnhancedBaselinesModels,Extended
MaritimeJurisdiction 24
1.2.1.5 Limitations 25
1.2.2 EmergingTechnologyinMaritimeBoundary
DisputeResolution 27
1.2.2.1 InternationalCases 32
1.3 Conclusion 33
2 Renewable Energy and the Law of the Sea 35
2.1 Introduction 35
2.2 RightstoExploitResources 38
2.2.1 ElectricityGeneration 38
2.2.2 ElectricityTransmission 44
2.2.3 CollaborationonOffshoreRenewableElectricityGeneration
andTransmission 45
v
Published online by Cambridge University Press
vi
2.3 RightstoRegulate 46
2.4 ConflictbetweenSeaUses 49
2.5 MarineEnvironmentalProtection 54
2.5.1 ClimateChange,OffshoreRenewablesandMarine
EnvironmentalProtection 59
2.6 Conclusion 61
3 Striking an Equitable Balance under the Biodiversity
Agreement: The Elusive Case of New Technologies, Marine
Genetic Resources and the Global South 63
ˊ
3.1 Introduction 64
3.2 SignificantandSubstantialLegalIssues 66
3.3 North–SouthCapabilitiesandDisparities 68
3.4 UnfinishedBusinessandInherentBiases 74
3.5 SlowRoadtoDamascusviatheUN 81
3.6 QuestionsofTermsandObjectives 83
3.7 Future-ProofingtheAgreementthroughaProcessof
NormativeAccretion 88
3.8 RoleofTechnologyinMonitoringandBenefit
Sharing 91
3.9 NewInstitutionalArchitecture 94
3.10 EmpoweringaOne-StopInformationSharingPlatform 96
3.11 Match-makingandEstablishingaTechnology
Mechanism 98
3.12 CantheAgreementStrikeaMoreEquitableBalance
intheLawoftheSea? 103
4 Small Modular Reactors and Transportable Nuclear
Power Plants 108
4.1 Introduction 109
4.1.1 UseofSMRsatSea 110
4.2 EmergingTNPPsatSea:StrategicUsageand
Description 112
4.2.1 AkademikLomonosovFloatingSMR 112
4.2.2 ChineseFNPPs 114
4.2.3 UnderwaterSMRontheContinentalShelf 116
4.2.4 UnderwaterSMRontheDeepSeabed 116
4.2.5 Poseidon 117
4.2.6 OntheHorizonApplicationsofSMRsandTNPPsonLandand
inSpace 118
Published online by Cambridge University Press
vii
4.3 TheLegalRegimeApplicable 119
4.3.1 NuclearRegime 119
4.3.2 LawoftheSeaRegime 120
4.3.2.1 TNPPs:ShipsorInstallations? 121
4.3.2.2 NavigationalRights 124
4.4 CivilLiabilityforNuclearDamagefromTNPPsandSMRs 125
4.4.1 GeneralPrinciplesoftheNuclearLiabilityConventions 125
4.4.1.1 ComparingtheNuclearLiabilityConventions
withUNCLOS 126
4.4.2 AreTNPPsNuclearInstallations?DoestheNuclearLiability
RegimeApply? 128
4.4.3 DoNuclearCivilLiabilityRegimesApplytoMilitaryNuclear
ReactorsatSea? 131
4.4.4 GeographicalScopeofApplicationandJurisdiction 132
4.4.5 DotheNuclearCivilLiabilityConventionsApplytoInjured
Nonparties? 134
4.4.6 AlternativeRemediesinCasesofAccidentsby
NonpartyStates 135
4.4.6.1 LawofStateResponsibility 136
4.5 Conclusion 138
5 Shipping, Distributed Ledgers and Private
Maritime Law 141
5.1 SeaCargoDocumentation 142
5.2 ThePaymentProcess 149
5.3 CargoCareandMonitoring 153
5.4 VesselMonitoring 156
6 Maritime Cyber Security 158
6.1 Introduction 158
6.2 Technology,SystemsandtheMaritimeEnvironment 161
6.3 ElectronicInterference,DisruptionsandMalicious
CyberActivities 164
6.4 LegalAuthorities 168
6.4.1 TheInternationalMaritimeOrganization(IMO) 168
6.4.1.1 MaritimeCyberRiskManagement 168
6.4.1.2 SOLASandtheISPSCode 169
6.4.1.3 AutomaticIdentificationSystem(AIS) 171
6.4.1.4 InternationalSafetyManagement(ISM)Code 171
6.4.2 EuropeanUnion 173
6.4.3 UnitedStates 174
6.4.4 NationalStrategies 177
Published online by Cambridge University Press
viii
6.5 OtherPotentialLegalApproachesandIndustryGuidance 177
6.5.1 SUAConvention 177
6.5.2 IndustryGuidance 178
6.6 Conclusion:PartnershipsAretheKey 179
7 International Standards for Hull Inspection and Maintenance
of Robotics and Autonomous Systems 184
7.1 Introduction 184
7.1.1 SettingtheScene:RASTermsandConcepts 187
7.1.2 BiofoulingDegradesVesselPerformance 188
7.2 TheInternationalLegalRegime 189
7.2.1 IMO2011Guidelines 189
7.2.2 International“Standards”andtheRegulatoryRegime 191
7.2.3 State-of-the-ArtInternationalStandardsand
RASIntegration 194
7.3 PerceivedBarriersandtheWayForward 202
7.3.1 ImplicationsfortheLawoftheSea 208
7.4 Conclusion 211
8 Functionalism and Maritime Autonomous
Surface Ships 214
. .
8.1 Introduction 214
8.2 TheConstitutionalNatureofUNCLOS 216
8.2.1 TheProspectofAmendingUNCLOS 217
8.2.2 InterpretingUNCLOS 218
8.2.3 ImplementationofUNCLOSandtheModality
ofGAIRS 220
8.3 ElusiveDefinitionsandAutonomousNavigation 223
8.4 FunctionalFlexibilityintheRequirementforShipManning 226
8.5 TheIMOMASSRegulatoryScopingExercise 230
8.6 TowardaGoal-BasedStandardSettingApproach 231
8.7 ProceduralObligationsandFunctionalFlexibility 234
8.8 FunctionalFlexibilityandStandardofReview 236
8.9 Conclusion 240
9 Artificial Intelligence to Facilitate Safe Navigation
of Ships 243
9.1 TheSeaandAI 243
9.2 DefiningConceptsinAI 245
Published online by Cambridge University Press
ix
9.2.1 DefinitionalBuildingBlocks 245
9.2.1.1 Intelligence 245
9.2.1.2 Algorithms 245
9.2.1.3 ArtificialIntelligence 246
9.2.2 ManifestationsofAI 247
9.2.3 AI–HumanInterfaceOperationalParadigms 251
9.2.3.1 Human-in-the-LoopAI(HITL) 251
9.2.3.2 Human-on-the-LoopAI(HOTL) 252
9.2.3.3 Human-out-of-the-LoopAI(HOOTL) 252
9.2.4 ImpactofAIontheMaritimeDomain 253
9.3 LegalDutiesRelatingtoHydrographyandSafeNavigation 253
9.3.1 UNCLOS 254
9.3.1.1 CoastalStateDutiesunderUNCLOS 254
9.3.1.2 TheDutiesoftheFlagStateunder
UNCLOS 255
9.3.1.3 FlagStateGovernanceCanBenefitfromAI 256
9.3.1.4 DutiesoftheMasterunderUNCLOS 257
9.3.2 SOLAS 258
9.3.3 STCW 260
9.3.4 COLREGS 261
9.4 AIandDisasterPrevention 263
9.4.1 USSGuardian 264
9.4.2 SSElFaro 267
9.5 FinalThoughtsandConclusion 269
10 Unmanned and Autonomous Warships and
Military Aircraft 272
()
10.1 Introduction 272
10.2 UnmannedSystemsCapabilitiesandMissionSets 273
10.2.1 UnmannedAerialSystems(UASs) 275
10.2.2 UnmannedMaritimeVehicles(UMVs) 275
10.2.3 UnmannedSurfaceVehicles(USVs) 276
10.2.4 UnmannedUnderwaterVehicles(UUVs) 279
10.3 UnmannedSystems:CharacterizationandStatus 282
10.3.1 UnmannedAerialSystems(UASs) 283
10.3.2 AreUnmannedMaritimeVehicles(UMVs)
Ships? 284
10.3.3 AreUnmannedMaritimeVehicles(UMVs)
Warships? 290
10.3.4 SovereignImmunity 293
10.4 NavigationalRightsandFreedoms 294
10.4.1 DutiesandObligations 295
10.5 Conclusion 297
Published online by Cambridge University Press
x
11 Seabed Technology and Naval Operations on the
Continental Shelf 301
11.1 LegalRegimeoftheContinentalShelf 301
11.1.1 ConceptoftheContinentalShelf 303
11.1.1.1 TheTrumanProclamation 305
11.1.1.2 ContinentalShelfConvention 306
11.1.1.3 SeabedCommittee 307
11.1.2 SeabedNuclearArmsTreaty 308
11.1.3 “PeacefulPurposes” 311
11.2 MilitaryActivitiesontheContinentalShelf 314
11.2.1 SoundSurveillanceSystem 315
11.2.2 SeabedInstallationsandStructures 316
11.2.3 “Hydra”andUpwardFallingPayloads 322
11.2.4 China’sMilitaryActivitiesonthePhilippine
ContinentalShelf 324
11.3 Conclusion 326
Index 327
Published online by Cambridge University Press
