Elementary text-book of zoology, tr. and ed. by Adam Sedgwick, with the assistance of FG Heathcote

615 Pages·2011·44.47 MB·English

by  Claus, Carl, 1835-1899

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ELEMENTARY
TEXT-BOOK
OF
ZOOLOGY
GENERAL PART AND SPECIAL PART:
PROTOZOA TO INSECTA.
BY
DR. GLAUS,
C.
ProfessorofZoologyandComparativeAnatomyinthe UniversityofVienna;
DirectoroftheZoologicalStationatTrieste.
TRANSLATED AND EDITED BY
ADAM
SEDGWICK,
M.A., F.R.S.,
FelloicandLecturerofTrinityCollege, Cambridge,andExaminerinZoology intht
UniversityofLondon.
WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF
R G. HEATHCOTE, M.A.,
TrinityCollege, Cambridge.
FOURTH EDITION.
VOLUME WITH 491
WOODCUTS.
LONDON:
SWAN SONNENSCHEIN & CO.
PATERNOSTER SQUARE.
1892.
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PRINTED BY
HAZELL, WATSON, AND VINEY, LD.,
LONDON AND AVLESBURY.
f
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PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH TRANSLATION,
T UNDERTOOK the translation of Professor Clans'excellent
-* "Lehrbuch der Zoologie" with a view of supplying the
want, which has long been felt by teachers as well as students
in this country, of a good elementary text-book of Zoology.
Professor Glaus' works on zoology are already well known in
this country ; and I think it will be generally admitted that
they take the first place amongst the zoological text-books
ofthe present day.
It has been decided to publish the English translation
in two volumes. The second volume, which begins with
Mollusca, is in the press, and will, I trust, appear early in
the autumn.
The German has been? with one or two unimportant
exceptions, closely followed throughout. These exceptions,
and the few additions which I have thought it necessary to
make, have in all cases been indicated by enclosure within
brackets.
I must ask the indulgence of the reader towards the errors
and deficiencies of this translation. I trust that they will be
found to be neither numerous nor important. I have to thank
Mr. Heathcote for the assistance he has given me in the
laborious work of translation. I amalsoindebtedto Professors
Newton and Foster, Dr. Gadow, and Mr. W. Heape for advice
and assistance.
ADAM SEDGWICK.
TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE,
1884.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS.
GENERAL PART.
CHAPTER
I.
Page
ORGANIZED AND UNOEGANIZED SUBSTANCES 914
. . .
CHAPTER
II.
ANIMALS AND PLANTS 1524
CHAPTER III.
ORGANIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF ANIMALS IN
GENERAL 24-131
.....
INDIVIDUAL, ORGAN, STOCK 24
Repetitionoforgansandpartsofthebody 25
CELLS AND CELL TISSUES 29
NucleusandNucleolus .... 29
Cell-membrane 29
Reproductionof Cellsanddivisionof Nucleus 30
1. Cellsand Cell-aggregates 32
Isolatedcells,u.y., bloodcorpuscles,ova, etc 32
Epithelium 34
Epidermal exoskeleton 34
Glandulartissue 30
2. Tissuesoftlieconnectivesubstance 37
MCeulclouulasroorrgveelsaitciunloaurs...... ... 3377
Reticular,adenoid 38
Fibrillar 38
Elastic 39
Cartilage .......... 3!)
Osseous tissue . 40
3. Muscular tixxm- 43
4. Nervous tixxue .-45
.........
INCREASE IN SIZE AND PROGRESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION, ETC. 47
..48
Unicellularstage
Multicellularstage 49
CORRELATION AND CONNECTION OF ORGANS .50
. . . .
Doctrineof Final Causes . . 51
"Type" . 52
ScopeofMorphology 52
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THU COMPOUND ORGANS 52
. .
Digestiveorgans . 53
Salivaryglands,liver, pancreas 58
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TABLE OF CONTENTS. 5
.... ...
Page
Organsofcirculation . ^ 59
Heart 61
Arteriesandveins 62
Heartandvesselsof.ver.tebr.ates ...... 64
Organsofrespiration .... 67
Branchiae .... 69
Lungs, tracheae ... .... 69
TRreancehweaallogfillesxternal medium ... ..... 7712
Venousand arterialblood 73
Animalheat. ... .. 73
Orrja>isofsecretion , ... 71
Kidneys 75
Water-vascularvessels and segmental organs. 75
Vertebratekidneys . . 76
Cutaneousglands '. .... 77
ORGANS OP ANIMAL LIFE .... 78
Skeletalstructures - , . . 79
Nen-oussystem . . 79
Senseorgans. . . 83
Tactileorgans . . 84
Auditory organs 85
FVaicsueatlteodrgeaynes . . c ... 8858
Simpleeye 89
Olfactoryorgans 91
INTELLIGENCE AND INSTINCT 93
REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS 95
... ....
Biogenesis .... 96
Asexualreproduction ...... 96
Sexualreproduction... 97
Hermaphroditism .... 99
Separationof thesexes 100
Sexual differences ... 101
Sexualdimorphism 104
Parthenogenesis 105
DEVELOPMENT 107
Fertilisation oftheovum 108
Segmentationoftheovum 110
Food-yolk Ill
Blastosphere 113
Formationofgastrula 114
Primitive streak . . . . 115
Germinal layers 116
TheoryofGastrrca 117
DIRECT DEVELOPMENT AND METAMORPHOSIS 119
Effectoffood-yolk ondevelopment 120
Explanationof Metamorphosis 121
ALTERNATION OP GENERATIONS, POLYMORPHISM AND HETEROGAMY 123
Metagenesis 123
Explanation of Metagenesis 124
Polymorphism 126
Heterogamy 127
Predogenesis 128
Heterogamy ofTrcmatocla 12'J
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C TABLE OF CONTENTS.
.CH.APT.ER.IV.....
Page
HISTORICAL REVIEW 131139
....
Aristotle
Pliny
Renaissanc.eof.Scie.nces.in Si.xtee.nthc.entu.ry..
"*j 194
Linnaeus .
Cuvier
St. Hilaire, Goethe, Oken
Classificationofthepresentday
CHAPTER .V. ....
.
MEANING OF TH.E S.YS.TEM.. 139179
.....
140
Species
Varieties 141
142
Sterilityofhybrids . 143
SFteerrtiilliittyyaonf.dhyfbe.rrtiidlsi.ty. of.mon.grels .I143
Lamark 144
Lyell'sinfluenceon Geology . 144
........
THEORYOF DESCENTBASED ONNATURAL SELECTION(DARWINISM) . 144
Darwin
Naturalselection -1
Originofvaiieties,racesandspecies
Progressingdivergence of characters,and disappearance of inter-
mediateforms 1
Speciesaccordingto thetheoryofevolution 150
Naturalsystem 150
EVIDENCE IN FAVOUR OF TH.E T.HEO.RY.OF .DESCENT . . . 151
Evidencefrom Morphology 151
frnm Dimorphism and Polymorphis.m ...... 152
Sexualselection 152
Sexual dimorphismofparasites 153
Polymorphismofanimal c.ommu.niti.es .. .* .. .. ....155
frommimicry 155
fromrudimentaryorgans 156
from rmlryvlogy 157
Retrogressivemetamorphosis 158
fnoit thefacts of Geographical Distribution 159
Zoological Provinces 160
from Piil/>'iiiiti>Jiiiji) ..... 163
Incompletenessofthegeologicalrecord ....1.C7 168
Transitionalformsbetweenalli.edsp.ecie.s ..... 170
Relationoffossilforms tolivingspecies . 170
Succession ofsimilartypes 171
Kxtinrt, Mammalia, transitional between livinggroups . . . 172
ExtincttransitionalReptilesandBirds 175
Progressiveperfection 177
Faunaofthevariousgeologicalpcriola 177
Incompletenessoftheexplanati>n . . . . . . . 118
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TABLE OF CONTENTS.
SPECIAL PART.
CHAPTER VI. CHAPTER VIII.
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TABLE OK CONTENTS
CHAPTER X.
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GENERAL
PART.
CHAPTER
I.
ORGANISED AND UNORGANISED SUBSTANCES.
IN the world, which is perceptible to our senses, we distinguish
between living organised and lifeless unorganised bodies. The
former (i.e., animals and plants) are endowed with the power of
movement, and they remain the same in spite of manifold changes
both of themselves as a whole and of their parts, and in spite of
continual change of the matter entering into their composition.
Unorganised bodies, on the other hand, are found in a condition
of constant rest; and although this rest is not necessarily fixed and
unchangeable, yet they are without that independence, of movement
wliicli manifests itselfinmetabolism. In the former we recognize an
organisation, a composition of unlike parts (organs), in which the
matter exhibits its activity in a fluid and dissolved form; in the
latter we meet with a mass which is more uniform, though as far
as the position and arrangement of the molecules are concerned,
not always homogeneous, and in which the various parts continue
in a state of resting equilibrium so long as the unity of the body
remains undisturbed. The matter of unorganised bodies (for in-
stance, of crystals) is in a state of stable equilibrium, while through
the organised being a stream of matter takes place.
The properties and changes of living bodies are strictly dependent
on the physico-chemical laws of matter, and this is recognized more
clearly as science advances; yet it must be admitted that we are
entirely ignorant of the molecular arrangement of the material basis
of a living organism, and it exists under conditions the nature of
which is as yet unexplained. These conditions, which we may
designate, as vital without thereby calling in question their depen-
dence on material processes, distinguish organisms from all un-
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/O GEXEBAL PAET.
organised bodies. They relate (1) to the mode of origin, (2) to the
mode of maintenance, (3) to the form and structure of the organism.
Living bodies cannot be manufactured by physico-chemical means
from a definite chemical mixtureunder definiteconditionsof warmth,,
pressure, electricity, etc. ; their existence rather presupposes, accord-
ing to our experience, the existence of like or at least very similar
beings from which they have originated. It appears that, in the
present state of our knowledge, there is no evidence to show that an
independent abiogenetic generation (generatio cequivoca, spontaneous
generation) actuallytakes place, eveninthesimplestand lowestforms
of life; although very recently some investigators (Pouchet) have
been led by results of remarkable but equivocal experiments to the
opposite view. The existence of the generatio cequivoca would offer
a very important service to our contention for the physico-chemical
explanation; it even appears to be a necessary postulate in order to
explain the first appearance of organisms.
The second and most important characteristic of organisms, and
that onwhich the verymaintenance of life depends, is their metabolic
power, i.e., the power which they possess of continually using up and
renewing the matter composing the body. Every phenomenon of
growthpresupposesthereceptionand changeof materialconstituents;
every movement, secretion, and manifestation of life depend on the
exchange of matter, on the breaking down and building up of
chemical compounds. On this alternating destruction and renewal
of the combinations of the body substance two properties necessary
to living things depend, viz., the reception offood and excretion of
wasteproducts.
It is the organic substances(socalledonaccountof theiroccurrence
in organisms), i.e., the ternaryand quaternarycarboncompounds(the
former composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, the latter of
these with the addition of nitrogen, and among the latter are
included the albumins) which undergo the exchanges characterising
metabolism; they either (in animals) break up under the influence
of oxidation into substances of simpler composition; or (in plants)
are built up by substitution from simpler inorganic substances.
But just as the general fundamental properties (elasticity, weight,
porosity) of organisms agree so closelywith those of inorganic bodies,
that it was possible to construct a general theory of the constitution
of matter, so all the elements (fundamental substances which differ
qualitatively, and are chemically incapable of further simplification)
A
of organic matter are again found in inorganic nature. vital