Table Of ContentHigh-Pressure Shock Compression of
Condensed Matter
Editor-in-Chief
Robert A. Graham
Editorial Board
Roger Cheret, France
Godfrey Eden, Great Britain
Jing Fuqian, China
Vitalii I. Goldanskii, Russia
James N. Johnson, USA
Malcolm F. Nicol, USA
Akira B. Sawaoka, Japan
s.s.
Batsanov
Effects of Explosions
on Materials
Modification and Synthesis
Under High-Pressure
Shock Compression
With 34 Illustrations
Springer Science+Business Media, LLC
S.S. Batsanov
Center for High Dynamic Pressures
Mende1eevo 141570
Moscow Region
Russia
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Batsanov, S.S. (Stepan Sergeevich)
Effects of explosions on materials: modification and synthesis
under high-pressure shock compression
S.S. Batsanov.
p. cm.-(High-pressure shock compression of condensed
matter)
Includes bibliographical references and indexes.
I. Condensed matter. 2. Shock (Mechanics) 3. Materials
Compression testing. 4. Explosions. I. Title. II. Series.
QCI73.4.C65B38 1994
620.1'1242-dc20 93-6197
CIP
ISBN 978-1-4419-2836-8 ISBN 978-1-4757-3969-5 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4757-3969-5
Printed on acid-free paper.
.:r:
1994 Springer Science+Business Media New York
Originally published by Springer-Verlag New York, Inc. in 1994.
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1s t edition 1994
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9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Preface
In the 1950s explosives began to be used to generate ultrahigh pressures
in condensed substances in order to modify their properties and structure.
Notwithstanding the short duration of an explosion, its energy proved to be
high enough to perform physical-chemical transformations of substances,
and the new method gained wide industrial applications. It has both advan
tages and drawbacks in comparison with the traditional method of static
compression.
The latter method, notorious for its cumbersome and expensive machin
ery, allows one to maintain high pressure as long as one pleases and to regu
late the temperature of the sample arbitrarily. But, the pressure available is
rather limited and for any increase of this limit one has to pay by the progres
sive shrinking of the working volume of a press.
The dynamic method has the advantages of low cost and practically no
restrictions of magnitude of pressure and the size of a processed sample, but
the temperature in a compressed body is no longer controlled by an experi
mentor. Rather, it is firmly dictated by the level of loading, according to the
equation of state. Hence, it is difficult to recover metastable products and
impossible to prepare solids with a low concentration of defects as the dura
tion of explosion is too short for their elimination.
Therefore, it is of vital importance to 'mate' the static and dynamic
methods both by establishing correlations between their parameters and by
combining them directly, that is applying to one and the same object in
succession. In the latter case, an explosion initiates, or even accomplishes, the
transformation and static pressure preserves and/or perfects the product.
This book discusses the physics and technique of shock compression as
applied to the problems of inorganic chemistry and materials science which
have been the subject of research of the author and his co-workers for the last
30 years. The author tried to provide the most recent account of the theoreti
cal and experimental data on the effect of explosion on substance and also to
give an unbiased historical outlook, as far as possible strictly following the
priority of scientific publications. This was not an easy task due to security
restrictions (very common for this field in its early days) and technological
secrecy.
v
vi Preface
I want to express my deepest gratitude to my colleagues and friends G.A.
Adadurov, L.G. Bolkhovitinov, O.N. Breusov, G.S. Doronin, A.N.
Dremin, M.A. Meyers, R. Priimmer, and V.M. Titov, as well as to my co
workers in the Department of Physics and Chemistry of Impact Pressures of
the Novosibirsk Institute of Thermophysics and in the Center for High
Dynamic Pressures of Physical-Technical and Radiomeasurements
(Moscow).
I hope this book will be useful for researchers, as well as students, post
graduates, and academics specializing in both materials science and shock
wave physics.
Moscow
Contents
Preface. .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . .. . . ... . ... . . .. . . ... ... . . .. .... . ... . v
Chapter 1. Foundations of the Physics of Shock Waves ............ 1
1.1 Generation of Shock Waves: Hugoniot Curves ...... 1
1.2 Dynamic Compressibility of Solids: Hugoniot Elastic
Limits and Plastic Flows ....................... 24
1.3 Dynamic Compressibility of Solids:
Phase Transitions ............................. 31
1.4 Variability of the Nature of Chemical Bonds:
Disproportionation of Compounds Under
Pressure ..................................... 42
Chapter 2. Ampoules for Recovery of Shock-Loaded Products ....... 46
2.1 Cylindrical Ampoules ........................... 46
2.2 Planar Ampoules .............................. 57
2.3 Confined Explosion ............................ 63
Chapter 3. Mechanical Characteristics and Microstructural Changes of
Solids Under Shock Compression 66
3.1 Fragmentation of Solids ......................... 66
3.2 Microstructure of Shock-Loaded Crystals .......... 69
3.3 Shock Hardening of Solids ...................... 82
3.4 Shock Compaction ............................. 90
Chapter 4. Changing Atomic Structure by Shock Compression ...... 99
4.1 Phase Transformations of Graphite and Hexagonal
Boron Nitride ................................. 99
4.2 Phase Transformations of Oxides and Fluorides .... 105
4.3 Phase Transformations of Metals ................. 108
4.4 Anomalous Phase Transitions Under
Shock Compression ............................ 110
vii
viii Contents
Chapter 5. Chemical Transformations in Shock Compression ....... 117
5.1 Defects and Decomposition of Compounds ........ 117
5.2 Synthesis and Mass Transfer in Shock Compression. 120
5.3 Mass Transfer and Atom Diffusion ............... 136
5.4 Physical Determination of the Reaction Time:
Peculiarities of Chemical Transformations ......... 141
Chapter 6. Detonation Transformation and Diamond Synthesis ..... 152
Conclusion ................................................. 156
References ................................................. 157
Subject Index ............................................... 187
Substance Index ............................................. 189
CHAPTER 1
Foundations of the Physics of Shock Waves
Since the classical physics of shock waves is considered in detail in many
monographs [1.1, 1.2], in this chapter we restrict ourselves to basic defini
tions that enable us to obtain insight into and to interpret factual mate
rial, and to novel theoretical and experimental results. not yet included in
handbooks.
1.1 Generation of Shock Waves: Hugoniot Curves
It is well known that dynamic pressure results from shock wave generated by
an explosion of chemical substances or nuclear charges, collision of projec
tiles, flash vaporization of an irradiated substance, electric discharges and
other high-speed processes. A shock wave is a narrow region, of the order of
the free path length of molecules, of a compressed substance propagating in
space with supersonic speed. The time of increase in pressure (from zero to
the maximum value) varies from 10-12 to 10-10 s, the time of exposure to
high pressure varies about 10-6, and pressure drop (unloading) varies from
10-6 to 10-5 s.
The boundary of the shock wave (commonly called the shock front) sepa
rates the compressed and the disturbed substance, therefore all physical
properties on the front vary in a jumpwise manner. Proceeding from the
mass, momentum, and energy conservation laws to be kept on both sides of
the shock front, one can derive the relations among pressure P, internal
energy E, and specific volume V (or density p = I/V) of the disturbed sub
stance and those of the original substance (with subscript zero). Using as
experimental parameters the velocity of the shock front Us and the speed
of particles of the substance (mass velocity) behind the front Up yields the
following conservation equations:
VIVo = (Us - Up)/Us (1)
P - Po = Po Us Up (2)
E - Eo = 1/2(P + Po)(Vo + V) (3)
2 1. Foundations of the Physics of Shock Waves
For shock waves of high intensity the Po value may be neglected, and then
(4)
Thus, by measuring the speed of the shock front and the mass of the
substance, we can find both the compression of a body and the pressure
developed inside it.
Omitting the technique of measuring Us and Up (see reviews in [1.1-1.3]),
we point out that Us is normally measured by optical methods, observing
the propagation of the luminous surface, that is the shock front, and Up
is measured by both optical, X-ray, and various electromagnetic methods,
when the moving substance consecutively closes the contacts positioned at
certain spacings from each other.
Fairly low dynamic pressures can also be measured by direct methods
using piezoelectric transducers precalibrated by speed or static measurements.
At last, in recent years, the new technique of X-ray diffraction analysis made
it possible to directly measure the volume of a shock-compressed body, as
discussed in detail below.
The thermodynamic state of a system in shock waves, i.e., a shock adiabat,
or Hugoniot P-V curve, may be described using any pair of variables in
volved in Equations (1)-(3), but the P-V or Us-Up coordinates are most
often used. Since in the latter experimental data are used, this notation is
basic for interpreting empirical data.
Numerous observations have established that shock adiabats of many sub
stances (beyond the region of phase transitions) can be described by equa
tions such as
Us = a + bUp + cUi (5)
or, in the first approximation, by linear equations such as
Us = a + bUp (6)
Given shock adiabats, the dynamic pressure can be determined from a
single measurement (Us or Up). In certain cases, as shown below, Us is deter
mined directly from the organization of an experiment, hence, P can be found
given the Hugoniot parameters and velocities of detonation of the explosives.
Table 1.1 presents the values of the a and b parameters of Equation (6) for
bulk materials using the data of [1.4-1.11, 1.205, 1.238] and the pressures for
which these parameters are determined. In the case of phase transitions each
polymorphous modification possesses its own shock adiabat and parameters
in Equation (6). If the Us and Up values are in km/s, then it is convenient to
express P in GPa (1 GPa = 10 kbar), since Equation (4), which contains no
proportionality factors, yields precisely these values for pressure.
Table 1.1 contains no data for carbon since they are manifold. The equa
tions of state are derived for various types of graphite, for graphite of differ
ent initial density, and for diamond.
Thus, according to Gust [1.12], vacuum-calcined graphite with density
