Table Of ContentEconomic Geology
Economic Geology Principles and Practice
Metals, Minerals, Coal and Hydrocarbons – Introduction to Formation and Sustainable Exploitation of Mineral Deposits,Walter L. Pohl
©2011 Walter L. Pohl. Published 2011 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
To the Memory of Walther E. Petrascheck
(1906–1991)
Inspiring Geologist and Academic Teacher
COMPANION WEBSITE
This book has a companion website:
www.wiley.com/go/pohl/geology
with Figures andTables from the book for downloading
Economic Geology
Principles and Practice
Metals, Minerals, Coal and
Hydrocarbons – Introduction
to Formation and Sustainable
Exploitation of Mineral
Deposits
Walter L. Pohl
Thiseditionfirstpublished2011,(cid:1)2011byWalterL.Pohl
BlackwellPublishingwasacquiredbyJohnWiley&SonsinFebruary2007.Blackwell’spublishing
programhasbeenmergedwithWiley’sglobalScientific,TechnicalandMedicalbusinesstoform
Wiley-Blackwell.
Registeredoffice: JohnWiley&SonsLtd,TheAtrium,SouthernGate,Chichester,WestSussex,
PO198SQ,UK
Editorialoffices: 9600GarsingtonRoad,Oxford,OX42DQ,UK
TheAtrium,SouthernGate,Chichester,WestSussex,PO198SQ,UK
111RiverStreet,Hoboken,NJ07030-5774,USA
Fordetailsofourglobaleditorialoffices,forcustomerservicesandforinformationabouthowto
applyforpermissiontoreusethecopyrightmaterialinthisbookpleaseseeourwebsiteat
www.wiley.com/wiley-blackwell
Therightoftheauthortobeidentifiedastheauthorofthisworkhasbeenassertedinaccordance
withtheCopyright,DesignsandPatentsAct1988.
Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem,ortransmitted,
inanyformorbyanymeans,electronic,mechanical,photocopying,recordingorotherwise,exceptas
permittedbytheUKCopyright,DesignsandPatentsAct1988,withoutthepriorpermissionofthepublisher.
Wileyalsopublishesitsbooksinavarietyofelectronicformats. Somecontentthatappearsinprintmay
notbeavailableinelectronicbooks.
Designationsusedbycompaniestodistinguishtheirproductsareoftenclaimedastrademarks.
Allbrandnamesandproductnamesusedinthisbookaretradenames,servicemarks,trademarks
orregisteredtrademarksoftheirrespectiveowners.Thepublisherisnotassociatedwithanyproductor
vendormentionedinthisbook.Thispublicationisdesignedtoprovideaccurateandauthoritativeinformation
inregardtothesubjectmattercovered.Itissoldontheunderstandingthatthepublisherisnotengagedin
renderingprofessionalservices.Ifprofessionaladviceorotherexpertassistanceisrequired,theservicesof
acompetentprofessionalshouldbesought.
LibraryofCongressCataloguing-in-PublicationData
Pohl,Walter,1941-
Economicgeology:principlesandpractice:metals,minerals,coalandhydrocarbonsintroductionto
formationandsustainableexploitationofmineraldeposits/WalterL.Pohl.
p.cm.
Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.
ISBN978-1-4443-3662-7(hardback)–ISBN978-1-4443-3663-4(pbk.) 1. Geology,Economic. I. Title.
TN260.P642011
553—dc22
2010047192
AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary.
Thisbookispublishedinthefollowingelectronicformats:ePDF9781444394863;
WileyOnlineLibrary9781444394870;ePub9781444394856
Setin9/11.5pt,TrumpMediaevalbyThomsonDigital,Noida,India
1 2011
Contents
Preface xiii
Introduction 1
Whatareoredeposits? 1
Mininginthestressfieldbetweensocietyandenvironment 2
Themineralresourcesconundrum 4
Part I Metalliferous Ore Deposits 5
1 Geological ore formation process systems (metallogenesis) 7
Synopsis 7
1.1 MagmaticOreFormationSystems 8
1.1.1 Orthomagmaticoreformation 11
1.1.2 Oredepositsatmid-oceanridgesandinophiolites 18
1.1.3 Oreformationrelatedtoalkalinemagmaticrocks,carbonatites
andkimberlites 23
1.1.4 Granitoidsandoreformationprocesses 25
1.1.5 Oredepositsinpegmatites 32
1.1.6 Hydrothermaloreformation 35
1.1.7 Skarn-andcontact-metasomaticoredeposits 54
1.1.8 Porphyrycopper(Mo-Au-Sn-W)deposits 56
1.1.9 Hydrothermal-metasomaticoredeposits 59
1.1.10 Hydrothermalveindeposits 62
1.1.11 Volcanogenicoredeposits 68
1.2 SupergeneOreFormationSystems 76
1.2.1 Residual(eluvial)oredeposits 80
1.2.2 Supergeneenrichmentbydescending(vadose)solutions 82
1.2.3 Infiltrationasanagentoforeformation 88
1.3 SedimentaryOreFormationSystems 92
1.3.1 Blackshalesinmetallogenesis 93
1.3.2 Placerdeposits 94
1.3.3 Autochthonousironandmanganesedeposits 100
1.3.4 Sediment-hosted,submarine-exhalative(sedex)basemetaldeposits 107
vi CONTENTS
1.4 DiageneticOreFormationSystems 110
1.4.1 TheEuropeanCopperShale 114
1.4.2 Diagenetic-hydrothermalcarbonate-hostedPb-Zn(F-Ba)deposits 116
1.4.3 Diagenetic-hydrothermaloreformationrelatedtosaltdiapirs 119
1.5 MetamorphicandMetamorphosedOreDeposits 121
1.6 MetamorphogenicOreFormationSystems 125
1.7 Metallogeny–OreDepositFormationinSpaceandTime 132
1.7.1 Metallogeneticepochsandprovinces 133
1.7.2 Metallogenyandplatetectonics 134
1.8 GeneticClassificationofOreandMineralDeposits 139
1.9 SummaryandFurtherReading 146
2 Economic geology ofmetals 149
Synopsis 149
2.1 TheIronandSteelMetals 149
2.1.1 Iron 149
2.1.2 Manganese 159
2.1.3 Chromium 163
2.1.4 Nickel 168
2.1.5 Cobalt 173
2.1.6 Molybdenum 175
2.1.7 Tungsten(Wolfram) 179
2.1.8 Vanadium 183
2.2 BaseMetals 185
2.2.1 Copper 185
2.2.2 Leadandzinc 195
2.2.3 Tin 202
2.3 PreciousMetals 207
2.3.1 Gold 207
2.3.2 Silver 221
2.3.3 PlatinumandPlatinumGroupMetals 228
2.4 LightMetals 233
2.4.1 Aluminium 233
2.4.2 Magnesium 238
2.5 MinorandSpecialityMetals 239
2.5.1 Mercury 239
2.5.2 Antimony 243
CONTENTS vii
2.5.3 Arsenic 245
2.5.4 By-productelectronicmetals(selenium,tellurium,gallium,
germanium,indium,cadmium)andsilicon 247
2.5.5 Bismuth 250
2.5.6 Zirconiumandhafnium 251
2.5.7 Titanium 254
2.5.8 Rareearthelements(REE,lanthanides) 257
2.5.9 Niobiumandtantalum 261
2.5.10 Lithium 265
2.5.11 Beryllium 268
2.5.12 Uranium(andthorium) 270
2.6 SummaryandFurtherReading 283
Part II Non-Metallic Minerals and Rocks 285
3 Industrial minerals, earths and rocks 287
Synopsis 287
3.1 Andalusite,KyaniteandSillimanite 288
3.1.1 Andalusite 289
3.1.2 Kyanite 290
3.1.3 Sillimanite 291
3.2 Asbestos 291
3.2.1 Asbestosmineralizationtypes 292
3.3 BariteandCelestite 293
3.3.1 Geochemistry 294
3.3.2 Baritedeposittypes 296
3.4 Bentonite(SmectiteRocks) 299
3.4.1 Bentonitedeposittypes 301
3.5 Boron 302
3.5.1 Geochemistry 303
3.5.2 Borondeposittypes 303
3.6 CarbonateRocks:Limestone,CalciteMarble,Marlstone,Dolomite 305
3.6.1 Limestone 306
3.6.2 Metamorphiccalcite(andoccasionallydolomite)marbles 306
3.6.3 Marlstone 306
3.6.4 Dolomite 307
3.7 ClayandClayRocks 308
3.7.1 Claydeposittypes 308
viii CONTENTS
3.8 Diamond 310
3.8.1 Sourceandformationofdiamonds 311
3.8.2 Diamonddeposittypes 312
3.9 DiatomiteandTripoli 317
3.9.1 Diatomitedeposittypes 318
3.9.2 Tripoli 319
3.10 Feldspar 319
3.11 Fluorite 320
3.11.1 Geochemistry 321
3.11.2 Fluoritedeposittypes 322
3.12 Graphite 325
3.12.1 Graphitedeposittypes 326
3.13 GypsumandAnhydrite 327
3.13.1 Depositsofgypsumandanhydrite 328
3.14 Kaolin 330
3.14.1 Kaolindeposittypes 331
3.15 Magnesite 333
3.15.1 Magnesitedeposittypes 334
3.16 Mica(Muscovite,Phlogopite,Vermiculite) 339
3.16.1 Muscoviteandphlogopite 339
3.16.2 Vermiculite 340
3.17 Olivine 342
3.17.1 Olivinedeposits 342
3.18 Phosphates 342
3.18.1 Geochemistry 345
3.18.2 Phosphatedeposittypes 345
3.19 QuartzandSilicon 347
3.19.1 Quartzdeposittypes 348
3.20 Quartzite 349
3.20.1 Metamorphicquartzitedeposits 350
3.20.2 Sedimentaryquartzite 350
3.21 QuartzSandandGravel 350
3.21.1 Industrialsandandgravel 351
3.21.2 Buildingsandandgravel 352
CONTENTS ix
3.22 SodiumCarbonate,SulfateandAlum 354
3.22.1 Sodiumsulphate 355
3.22.2 Alumsalts 355
3.23 Sulphur 355
3.23.1 Geochemistry 356
3.23.2 Deposittypesofelementarysulphur 356
3.24 TalcandPyrophyllite 358
3.24.1 Talcdeposittypes 359
3.24.2 Pyrophyllite 361
3.25 VolcaniclasticRocks 362
3.25.1 Pumice 362
3.25.2 Perlite 363
3.25.3 Trass 363
3.26 Wollastonite 364
3.26.1 Wollastonitedepositformation 364
3.27 Zeolites 365
3.27.1 Zeolitedeposittypes 366
3.28 SummaryandFurtherReading 367
4 Saltdeposits(evaporites) 369
Synopsis 369
4.1 SaltMineralsandSaltRocks 371
4.1.1 Saltminerals 371
4.1.2 Saltrocks 371
4.2 TheFormationofSaltDeposits 376
4.2.1 Saltformationtoday 376
4.2.2 Saltformationinthegeologicalpast 384
4.3 Post-DepositionalFateofSaltRocks 394
4.3.1 Diagenesisandmetamorphismofevaporites 394
4.3.2 Deformationofsaltrocks 397
4.3.3 Formsandstructuresofsaltdeposits 398
4.3.4 Supergenealterationofsaltdeposits 403
4.4 FromExplorationtoSaltMining 405
4.4.1 Explorationanddevelopmentofsaltdeposits 405
4.4.2 Geologicalpracticeofsaltmining 406
4.5 SummaryandFurtherReading 409
x CONTENTS
Part III The Practice of Economic Geology 411
5 Geological concepts and methods inthe mining cycle: exploration,
exploitation and closure ofmines 413
Synopsis 413
5.1 EconomicConsiderations 414
5.2 TheSearchforMineralDeposits(Exploration) 416
5.2.1 Thepre-explorationstage 416
5.2.2 Geologicalexploration 417
5.2.3 Geologicalremotesensing 420
5.2.4 Geochemicalexploration 422
5.2.5 Geophysicalexploration 428
5.2.6 Trenchinganddrilling 432
5.3 DevelopmentandValuationofMineralDeposits 437
5.3.1 Geologicalmappingandsampling 439
5.3.2 Orereserveestimationanddeterminationofgrade 440
5.3.3 Valuationofmineraldeposits 447
5.4 MiningandtheEnvironment 448
5.4.1 Potentialenvironmentalproblemsrelatedtominingandmine-site
processingplants 450
5.5 DeepGeologicalDisposalofDangerousWaste 458
5.6 SummaryandFurtherReading 462
Part IV Fossil Energy Raw Materials – Coal, Oil and Gas 465
6 Coal 467
Synopsis 467
6.1 TheSubstanceofCoal 471
6.1.1 Coaltypes 471
6.1.2 Petrographyofcoal 474
6.1.3 Thechemicalcompositionofcoal 479
6.2 PeatFormationandCoalDeposits 487
6.2.1 Typesanddimensionsofcoalseams 487
6.2.2 Concordantanddiscordantclasticsedimentsincoalseams 488
6.2.3 Peatformationenvironments 491
6.2.4 Hostrocksofcoal 495
6.2.5 Markerbedsincoalformations 497
6.2.6 Coalformationingeologicalspaceandtime 498
