Early Islamic Institutions: Administration and Taxation from the Caliphate to the Umayyads and Abbasids

232 Pages·2011·1.74 MB·English

by  Abd Al-Aziz Duri

00cc_Early_Islamic_Inst_i-x 23/6/11 08:38 Page i
Early Islamic Institutions
00cc_Early_Islamic_Inst_i-x 24/6/11 13:11 Page ii
CONTEMPORARY ARAB SCHOLARSHIP IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES
Series ISBN 978 84885 207 5
The Contemporary Arab Scholarship in the Social Sciences (produced by I.B.Tauris in
cooperationwiththeCentreforArabUnityStudies)aimstointroduceanEnglishlanguage
audience to the most cutting-edge writings from the Arab world in the fields of politics,
sociology,philosophyandhistory.Hitherto,themajorityofsocialstudiesontheArabworld
havebeenwrittenby,andfromtheperspectiveof,non-Arabs.Thisseriesaimstoremedythe
situationbypresentingauthentic,indigenouspointsofviewfromkeyinfluentialthinkersand
intellectuals.Thewritersassembledintheseries–allhighlydistinguishedexpertsintheir
areasofstudy–tacklethemostcriticalissuesfacingtheArabworldtoday:Islam,modernity,
development,thelegacyofimperialismandcolonialism,civilsociety,democracyandhuman
rights. English-languagereadersareheregivenanunprecedentedwindowonthevitalityand
distinctnessofcontemporaryArabintellectualdebateinhigh-quality,eminentlyreadable
translationsoftheoriginalworks.
Democracy,HumanRightsLawinIslamicThought
MohammedAbedal-Jabri
9781845117498
BritainandArabUnity:
ADocumentaryHistoryfromtheTreatyofVersaillestotheEndofWorldWarII
YounanLabibRizk
9781848850590
TheStateinContemporaryIslamicThought:
AHistoricalSurveyoftheMajorMuslimPoliticalThinkersoftheModernEra
AbdelilahBelkeziz
9781848850620
EarlyIslamicInstitutions:
AdministrationandTaxationfromtheCaliphatetotheUmayyadsand≤AbbÆsids
Abdal-AzizDuri
9781848850606
TheFormationofArabReason:
Text,TraditionandtheConstructionofModernityintheArabWorld
MohammedAbedal-Jabri
9781848850613
IslamicLandTax–Al-KharÆj:
FromtheIslamicConqueststothe≤AbbÆsidPeriod
GhaidaKhaznaKatbi
9781848850637
00cc_Early_Islamic_Inst_i-x 24/6/11 13:11 Page iii
Contemporary Arab Scholarship in the Social Sciences, Vol 4
Early Islamic Institutions
Administration and Taxation from the Caliphate
to the Umayyads and ≤AbbÆsids
By Abd al-Aziz Duri
Translated for the Centre for Arab Unity Studies
by Razia Ali
EditedwithadditionalannotationbytheCentreforArabUnityStudies
I.B.Tauris Publishers
In Association With
The Centre for Arab Unity Studies
00cc_Early_Islamic_Inst_i-x 24/6/11 13:11 Page iv
Theopinionsandideasexpressedinthisbookarethoseoftheauthoranddonot
necessarilyreflectthoseofeitherthepublisherortheCentreforArabUnityStudies.
Publishedin2011byI.B.Tauris&Co.Ltd
6SalemRoad,LondonW24BU
175FifthAvenue,NewYorkNY10010
www.ibtauris.com
PublishedinassociationwiththeCentreforArabUnityStudies
DistributedintheUnitedStatesandCanadaExclusivelyby
PalgraveMacmillan
CentreforArabUnityStudies
‘BeitAl-Nahda’Bldg.–BasraStreet–Hamra
POBox:113-6001Hamra
Beirut20342407–LEBANON
www.caus.org.lb
Copyright©2011CentreforArabUnityStudies
TherightofAbdal-AzizDuritobeidentifiedastheauthorofthisworkhasbeenasserted
byhiminaccordancewiththeCopyright,DesignsandPatentAct1988.
Allrightsreserved.Thisbook,oranypartthereof,maynotbereproduced,storedin
orintroducedintoaretrievalsystem,ortransmitted,inanyformorbyanymeans,
electronic,mechanical,photocopying,recordingorotherwise,withoutthepriorwritten
permissionofthepublisher.
ContemporaryArabScholarshipintheSocialSciences,Vol.4
ISBN:9781848850606
AfullCIPrecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary
AfullCIPrecordisavailablefromtheLibraryofCongress
LibraryofCongressCatalogCardNumber:available
DesignedandTypesetby4wordLtd,Bristol,UK
PrintedandboundinGreatBritainby????????????????
00cc_Early_Islamic_Inst_i-x 23/6/11 08:38 Page v
Contents
Preface vii
1 Origins of the Political Systems – al-nuæum al-siyÆs∞yah 1
Origins of Islamic political systems 1
The system of the caliphate and its development 13
Theories of the caliphate 48
Notes 68
2 Fiscal Systems – al-nuæum al-mÆl∞yah 81
The measures of the Prophet 81
The fiscal systemisations – tanæ∞mÆt – of ≤Umar bin al-KhaππÆb 87
The classification of lands during the caliphate of ≤Umar 97
Systemisations – al-tanæ∞mÆt – in Iraq (the sawÆd) 99
Taxes on trade (∂arÆ≥ib al-tijÆrah) 106
The tax system in the Umayyad era 107
The system of taxes in the early ≤AbbÆsid period 124
Taxes in the later ≤AbbÆsid periods 141
Notes 143
3 Administrative Systems 161
The DiwÆns 161
The inception and development of the wizÆrah 180
The theory of the wizÆrah 193
Notes 196
Bibliography 205
Index 217
00cc_Early_Islamic_Inst_i-x 23/6/11 08:38 Page vi
00cc_Early_Islamic_Inst_i-x 23/6/11 08:38 Page vii
Preface
The typology of a nation (ummah) manifests in the institutions according
to which it proceeds, and its vitality and capacity to endure and grow are
revealed in the development of its organisations across its history. The
various systems and institutions clarify for us the solutions the nation has
implementedinordertoregulateitsaffairsandtorespondtoitsexigencies
and needs, just as it reveals to us the essence of the particular nation and
itsgenius.
ThestudyofIslamicsystemsiscrucialtounderstandingthebackground
elements and salient trends which have influenced Islamic society. Thus,
researchintothevarioustypesofthesesystems–governmentalorpopular,
economic, social, political or cultural – divulges for us the secret of many
social and intellectual movements and developments. Are we able to
comprehendtheoriginofIslamicsectsandfactionswithoutbeingawareof
the problem of the caliphate, or what differences of view derive from it?
OrareweabletoperceivethecivilwarsinIslam,thechaoswhichensued
overthecovenantofsuccession(≤ahd)orthemultitudinousdivisionsifwe
arenotcognisantofthedevelopmentoftheinstitutionofthecaliphate?Or
isitpossibleforustoascertaintheraisond’êtrebehindthepositionsofthe
mawÆl∞ (the non-Arab client converts to Islam) in many of the social
movementswhichwereaffordedareligiouspatinaifwedonotcomprehend
the fiscal policy and systems of taxation according to which the Muslims
wereoperating?Isitpossibleforustounderstandtheflourishingofculture
if we fail to study the educational institutions and know about the
development of schools (madÆris) and universities in Islam? Would we
perceive the influence of the masses on the history of the Muslims if we
00cc_Early_Islamic_Inst_i-x 23/6/11 08:38 Page viii
viii EARLY ISLAMIC INSTITUTIONS
werenottostudythetradeandcraftguilds,aswellas[social]movements
suchasthe≤AyyÆr∑n,theShaππÆrandFityÆn?Arenotpoliticalevents,crises
andfaminesmanifestationsoftheinfluenceofpoliticalandfiscalsystems?
From another perspective, we cannot understand these systems if we
consider them to be fixed and stagnant. Just as they had a far-reaching
influenceonthecourseofhistory,likewisewewitnesstheirtransformation
anddevelopmentacrossdifferenterasandstages.Itisnotpossibleforusto
comprehend them unless we attempt to trace their development through
the different ages. This is an essential point which has sometimes been
neglectedbymanyresearcherswhothereforeremainunawareoftheinner
vitality of Islamic history. If we analyse the Islamic systems, we see that
theydidnotallariseaftertheemergenceofIslamanddidnotmatureina
short time. Rather, the origins of some of them go back to systems which
had been prevalent in the Near East before Islam. Pre-Islamic systems,
especially the traditions of chiefdom (mashyakhah) and some social
traditions, in their original form or in ones reformed and refined, were
among the sources of the early Islamic systems. When the Arab conquests
expanded east- and westwards, the Arabs utilised extant Sassanian and
Byzantine systems, particularly in matters of administration and finance.
Similarly, they benefited from the cultural heritage in general. Islamic
principles and Arab genius came together to refine these sources and
imprintthemwithanIslamiccharacter.TheMuslimscreatedthebeginnings
of new systems according to their needs, such as the institution of the
caliphate(khilÆfah)andthejudiciary(qa∂Æ≤).Withthepassingoftimeand
withtheinfluenceofnewrequirements,aswellasculturalandintellectual
developments, this core grew, expanded and spread, assuming new and
distinctforms.Similarly,newinstitutionsappearedwiththeunprecedented
influence of new circumstances, such as institutions for finance and
monetaryexchange.
In researching these systems, it is insufficient for us to devote attention
only to official institutions, such as the system of government, or the
financial and administrative systems. To fully comprehend the situation,
wemustalsobeconcernedwiththepopularinstitutions,suchasthetrade
guilds (≈iraf), the craft guilds (a∆nÆf), charitable endowment (waqf) and
schools, as well as Sufi lodges (takÆyÆ) and orders (zawÆyÆ), because they
illustrate the vitality of the ummah, its natural activity and autonomous
growth.Thisisinadditiontotheimportantrolewhichtheseorganisations
servedinperiodsofpoliticalweaknessandsomemajorsocialmovements,
such as the Qaramaπiyah, the IsmÆ≤∞lis and the Futuwwah movements, as
well as in economic and social life for the greater part of Islamic history.
00cc_Early_Islamic_Inst_i-x 23/6/11 08:38 Page ix
Preface ix
Who can study the dispute between the [caliphs] al-Am∞n and his brother
al-Ma≥m∑n, or the war between al-Musta≤∞n and al-Mu≤tazz or the
Buwayhid era, without referring to the ≤AyyÆr∑n and the ShaππÆr?1 Is it
possible to understand the rule of al-Na∆r li-D∞n AllÆh or the birth of the
OttomanstatewithoutstudyingtheFityÆnand≠kh∞yahmovement?2Can
the researcher understand the progress and rise of industry if he neglects
thestudyofthecraftguilds,theirqualifications(sharÆ≥iπ)andorganisational
structures?3 Can we comprehend cultural development if we overlook the
influenceofthereligiousschools,mosquesandSufilodges?4Woebetous
ifweweretodrawuponwhatissuperficialandabandonwhatisgenuinely
beneficialtopeople!
In another regard, we must distinguish between political systems and
theories, or the theories produced by fuqahÆ≥ (jurisprudents) and Muslim
thinkers, in order to define the existing systems, or to reform or accord
them legitimacy when they lacked a precedent or basis in the original
Islamic principles. Without doubt, failure to distinguish between political
systems and theories has been a source of confusion in some of the books
on Islamic systems, as our sources for researching the political and fiscal
theories are the works by the fuqahÆ≥ and intellectuals for example, the
booksonstatecraft(al-a≈kÆmal-sulπÆn∞yah)byal-MÆward∞,Ab∑Ya≤lÆal-
FarrÆ≥ al-√anbal∞ andIbnJamÆ≤ah,andthose onIslamic landtax(kharÆj)
byAb∑Y∑suf,Ya≈yÆbin≠damal-Qurash∞andQudÆmahbinJa≤far.
As for our sources for the study into Islamic systems (as opposed to
theories), these are numerous and diverse. In addition to the books on
statecraft and land tax, they include books of historical anecdotes (qi∆a∆);
booksforviziers(wuzarÆ≥);booksfortheedificationofsecretaries(kuttÆb);
general histories; dictionaries; biographies (siyar); geographies; as well as
some technical works and other [non-literary] sources. However, in these
books we find only disjointed fragments of information and observations
in which there is much confusion and contradiction. This results from the
different periods of the authors, the discrepancies between practice and
theory, and the varying purposes for which information was recorded, as
wellastheinstabilityofthesystemsthemselves,whichwerenotfixedina
uniformorsingleformandwheresomeexpandedwhileothersdisappeared,
inconjunctionwiththeappearanceofnewsystemswiththepassingoftime.
Therefore,theresearchermustscrutinisethesebookswithcarefulprecision
andtakenoteoftheperiodinwhichtheywerewritteninordertoputthe
informationinitsproperplace.
Inevitably–andobviously–theresultsoftheresearcharedependenton
the extant sources and information available to the researcher. These
00cc_Early_Islamic_Inst_i-x 23/6/11 08:38 Page x
x EARLY ISLAMIC INSTITUTIONS
conclusions will always be subject to revision and modification whenever
texts appear with new information, and therefore the researcher cannot
affirm or assert decisively the absolute veracity and precision of his
contentions–exceptonthebasisofwhattheavailableevidencesupports.
All that which I have presented here constitutes an initial attempt for
which I have followed the methodology of historical analysis. Even if its
use is only to stimulate the reader’s desire for more information on this
subjectortoclarifycertainpointsforhim,thenthatisthebestforwhichI
can hope. I have dealt with some of the Islamic systems in this volume in
thehopethatitwillbefollowedbyfurthersuchstudiesinthefuture.
Notes
1. See ≤Abd al-≤Az∞z al-D∑r∞, DirÆsÆt f∞ al-≤U∆∑r al-≤AbbÆs∞yah al-Muta≥akhirah.
(Baghdad:Sharikatal-RÆbiπahli-l-∏ab≤waal-Nashr,1946),pp.5,63,184–185,280,
282–286;al-A≤mÆlal-KÆmilahli-l-Dukt∑r≤Abdal-≤Az∞zal-D∑r∞,4,(Repr.Beirut:Centre
forArabUnityStudies,2007).
2. Ab∑∏Ælib≤Al∞binAnjabIbnal-SÆ≤∞,al-JÆmi≤al-Mukhta∆arf∞≤UnwÆnal-TawÆr∞kh
wa-≤Uy∑n al-Siyar, ed. Mu∆πafÆ JawÆd, Fr. Anastase-Marie al-Karmali [Carmelite]
(Baghdad:al-Maπba≤ahal-SuryÆn∞yahal-KÆth∑l∞k∞yah,1934),pp.221,359–361;Paul
Wittek,TheRiseoftheOttomanEmpire:StudiesintheHistoryofTurkey,13th–15th
Centuries (London: Royal Asiatic Society, 1938); Royal Asiatic Society monographs,
vol. xxiii; Köprülü, M. F., Les Origines de l’Empire Ottoman (Paris: E. de Boccard,
1935); F. Taeschner, ‘al-NÆ∆ir li-D∞n AllÆh’, M. Th. Houtsma et al, eds., The
EncyclopædiaofIslam:ADictionaryoftheGeography,EthnographyandBiography
oftheMuhammadanPeoples,4vols.andSuppl.(Leiden:E.J.BrillandLondon:Luzac,
1913–1938),vol.3,pt.2,pp.860–862.
3. See Muallim Cevdet, al-≠kh∞yah wa a-FityÆn (Istanbul: [n.p.], 1916); Bernard
Lewis, ‘The Islamic Guilds’, Economic History Review, vol. 8, no. 1 (1937–1938),
pp.20–37.
4. JohannesPedersen,‘Masdjid’,EncyclopaediaofIslam,vol.3,pt.1(1913–1938),
pp.314–389.