Table Of ContentDirections in
International
Terrorism
Theories, Trends and
Trajectories
Edited by
Hussein Solomon
Directions in International Terrorism
Hussein Solomon
Editor
Directions
in International
Terrorism
Theories, Trends and Trajectories
Editor
Hussein Solomon
Department of Political Studies and Governance
University of the Free State
Bloemfontein, South Africa
ISBN 978-981-16-3379-9 ISBN 978-981-16-3380-5 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-3380-5
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Foreword
ProfessorHusseinSolomon’sinvitationtowritethepresentforewardwas
an honour, first in view of the author’s experience, qualities and reputa-
tion as an academic researcher in the field of conflict and conflict resolu-
tion, international relations and religious fundamentalism, and secondly
because the subject matter—international terrorism in Africa, the Middle
East and Europe—reaffirms the need to look at terrorism and its drivers
from beyond one single region. I have also received his invitation as a
sincere testimony to the profound mutual respect, esteem and friendship
that unite us.
This is indeed a very timely book. Twenty years after the dramatic
events of 9/11, a plethora of books and academic studies have been
published in an attempt to understand what is terrorism and what leads
an individual to commit such an act or to join, support and sympa-
thize with terrorist groups. However, these books fell short in linking
researchtopolicy.Researchers,practitioners,specialistsandpolicy-makers
have long complained about the lack of a comprehensive publication to
assist them in devising measures, policies, frameworks and strategies on
terrorism. This book does indeed that, as it combines theory and policy
recommendations and its quantitative and qualitative in scope.
Whatalsomakesthisbookuniqueisthatitcombinesdifferentscholars
from different faith traditions, races, countries and cultures champi-
oningdiversetheoreticaltraditions,asitattemptstoapproachthesubject
holistically, bridging the various dichotomies existing in the area.
v
vi FOREWORD
More specifically, the book examines original and unconventional
aspects of international terrorism in Africa, the Middle East and Europe,
as it explores issues that are not really explored in the present literature
such as the issue of female jihadist, the environmental message of terror
groups and their social media strategy, in addition to the changing role
ofpeacekeepingoperationsandexistinggapsofstatescapacitytocounter
the technological advancements of terrorists in the twenty-first century.
Settingasidethechallengingquestionofdefiningterrorism,whichthe
UN is still grappling with for over 40 years now, and the argument of
“one Man’s Terroristis another Man’s Freedom Fighter”, and respecting
the struggle waged by peoples in accordance with the principles of inter-
national law for their liberation or self-determination, including armed
struggle against colonialism, occupation, aggression and domination by
foreign forces which shall not be considered as terrorism, it is critical to
read the chapters from the perspective of the individual author’s expe-
rience and background, as this helps to understand the arguments from
their angle. The result is a remarkably detailed and readable exposition
examining terrorism from ideological aspects to cultural identity, gover-
nance, terrorist finance, migration, counter-insurgency warfare, in addi-
tiontothedilemmaofterroristpropagandaandindividualfreedomssuch
as the freedom of expression.
Above all, the diversity of the chapters in the book reflects, unequiv-
ocally, the complexity of the challenges faced by both researchers and
policy-makers, in understanding terrorism and political violence, as we
ponder on the future development of such threats.
WearedeeplyindebtedtoProfessorSolomonforthisvaluableresearch
which will contribute to the dissemination of knowledge about Interna-
tional Terrorism. This publication will undoubtedly serve as a reference
toresearchers,practitioners,policy-makersandthegeneralpublicandwill
contribute to reinvigorating terrorism research and studies.
Idriss Mounir Lallali
Deputy-Director
African Centre for the Study and Research
on Terrorism (ACSRT)
Mohammadia, Algeria
Contents
1 Introduction 1
Hussein Solomon
2 Beyond Disciplinary Dogma: An Ontological Security
Approach to Terrorism and Its Study 11
Bianca Naudé
2.1 Introduction 11
2.2 The Nature of Terrorism: Ontological Questions
and Definitional Dilemmas 13
2.3 Theorising Terrorism: Epistemological Debates
and Theoretical Shortcomings 15
2.4 The Illusion of Control and Certainty: Ontological
Security Theory 18
2.5 Concluding Remarks: Future Directions
for Terrorism Research 23
References 28
3 Exploring the Confluence Between Terrorism
and Identity in Africa 33
Hussein Solomon and Jude Cocodia
3.1 Introduction 33
3.2 Critical Theory, Critical Terrorism Studies,
and Traditional Terrorism Studies 34
vii
viii CONTENTS
3.3 State Repression, State Induced Poverty,
and the Growth of Domestic Terrorism 36
3.4 Building Domestic Terrorism Through Fuelled
Rivalries and Misrepresented Local Narratives 40
3.5 The Centuries Old Jihad Factor 42
3.6 CTS and the Case of Somalia’s Al Shabaab 43
3.7 TheNigerianStateandtheFacilitationofDomestic
Terrorism 45
3.8 Senegal, in the Eye of West Africa’s Terrorism Storm 48
3.9 Concluding Insights 49
4 Updating Africa: Tweeting Terrorism 57
Alta Grobbelaar
4.1 Introduction 57
4.2 Varying Forms of Media 58
4.3 The African Audience 59
4.4 Terrorists Using the Media 61
4.5 Internet and Media Warfare 63
4.6 Al Shabaab’s Media Usage 65
4.7 The Influence of Terrorists’ Media Usage 70
4.8 Conclusion 73
5 The Environmental Message of Radical Islamic
and Terrorist Groups 81
Moshe Terdiman
5.1 Introduction 81
5.2 Blaming the West for the Current Environmental
Crisis 83
5.3 Launching Environmental Policies and Campaigns 84
5.4 Using the Environment as a Major Source of Income 87
5.5 The Use of Climate Change Effects
and Environmental Scarcity for Recruitment
Purposes 88
5.6 Using the Environment as a Weapon 89
5.7 Launching Attacks Against Energy Infrastructures 91
5.8 Summary 92
References 93
CONTENTS ix
6 Terror, Rebellion and Insurgency: Its Impact
on Conservation in Africa 97
Kurt Steiner
6.1 Introduction 97
6.2 Background to the Conflict Ivory Narrative 99
6.2.1 Links to Terrorism in East Africa 101
6.2.2 Links in West Africa 102
6.2.3 This Study 103
6.3 The Exploitation of Nature in Supporting Terrorism 104
6.3.1 Allied Democratic Forces/National Army
for the Liberation of Uganda 104
6.3.2 Forces Démocratiques De Libération Du
Rwanda 106
6.3.3 Mai Mai 107
6.3.4 Lord’s Resistance Army 108
6.3.5 Janjaweed 109
6.3.6 Anti-Balaka and Seleka 110
6.4 Discussion 111
6.4.1 Ivory Forms a Small, but not Insignificant
Part, of Terror Funding in Elephant Range
States 112
6.4.2 Protected Areas Provide Unique Benefits
to Armed Groups Unrelated to Wildlife
Trafficking 113
6.4.3 Conservation Law Enforcement Agencies
Often Lack the Mandate, Resources,
and Capabilities to Effectively Control
the Environmental Crimes of Armed Groups 113
6.5 Conclusion 114
7 Burning the Broth: Why African Counter-Terrorist
Operations Frequently Fail 121
Eeben Barlow
7.1 Introduction 121
7.2 Defining the Indefinable 122
7.3 Causes and Consequences 124
7.4 Knowing and Understanding the Terrain… 126
7.5 Not Knowing the Enemy… 127
7.6 Underestimating the Threat 129
x CONTENTS
7.7 Identifying the Ingredients 130
7.8 Know and Understand the Ingredients of Fourth
Generation Warfare 136
7.9 Why Have Anti-Government Forces and Terrorist
Movements Been Successful? 138
7.10 Burning the Broth: Building Structures on Shaky
Foundations 140
7.11 Adding More Unpalatable Ingredients:
Irrelevant Training, Poor Advice, Little
assistance—and Questionable Means and Ways 142
7.12 Conclusion 145
8 Peacekeeping in Africa While Preventing
and Countering Violent Extremism 149
Anneli Botha
8.1 Introduction 149
8.2 Defining Peacekeeping and Other Important
Concepts 151
8.3 United Nations Peacekeeping Missions in Africa 153
8.4 Troop Contributions 161
8.5 African Union Missions 170
8.6 AMISOM 171
8.7 Peacekeeping in the Broader Counterterrorism
and the Prevention and Combating of Violent
Extremism Debate 172
8.8 Future of Peacekeeping Operations in Africa 177
8.9 Enhancing the Success of Future Peacekeeping
Missions in Africa 179
8.10 Conclusion 181
9 Social Attitudes Fuelling Islamist Terrorism 187
Arno Tausch
9.1 Introduction 187
9.2 The Landscape We Are Facing 188
9.3 Methods and Data for Our Multivariate Analysis
of Terror Support 192
9.4 >160.000 Victims from Islamist Terrorism in Four
Decades 194
9.5 The Shari’a State 197
