Table Of ContentCRC Handbook
of
Irrigation
Technology
Volume II
Editor
Herman J. Finkel, Ph.D.
Director, Finkel & Finkel Ltd.
Consulting Engineers
Haifa, Israel
Boca Raton London New York
CRC Press is an imprint of the
Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
First published 1983 by CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
Reissued 2018 by CRC Press
© 1983 by CRC Press, Inc.
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
No claim to original U.S. Government works
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish
reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the
consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this
publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has
not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint.
Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form
by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording,
or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers.
For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http://www.copyright.
com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a
not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a
photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged.
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Main entry under title:
Handbook of irrigation technology.
Includes bibliographies and index.
1. Irrigation engineering. I. Finkel, Herman J.
TC805 .H25 627’.52 80-26417
ISBNO-8493-3231-1 (v. 1 )
ISBN 0-8493-3232-X (v. 2)
A Library of Congress record exists under LC control number: 80026417
Publisher’s Note
The publisher has gone to great lengths to ensure the quality of this reprint but points out that some imperfections in the original copies
may be apparent.
Disclaimer
The publisher has made every effort to trace copyright holders and welcomes correspondence from those they have been unable to
contact.
ISBN 13: 978-1-315-89355-6 (hbk)
ISBN 13: 978-1-351-07265-6 (ebk)
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the
CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com
THE EDITOR
Herman J. Finkel, Ph.D., is Director of Finkel and Finkel, Consulting Engineers,
and Emeritus Professor of Agricultural Engineering of the Technion-Israel Institute
of Technology, Haifa, Israel.
Dr. Herman J. Finkel is a graduate of the Department of Agricultural Engineering
of the University of Illinois (1940) and holds a Ph.D. from the Faculty of Agriculture
of the Hebrew University, Jerusalem. After years of experience in the United States
with the U.S. Corps of Engineers, the U.S. Soil Conservation Service, and private
consulting engineering firms, he moved to Israel where he became the Chief Engineer
of the newly formed Israel Soil Conservation Service. This work emphasized water
resource development and irrigation. In 1952 he founded the Faculty of Agricultural
Engineering at the Technion, Israel Institute of Technology, and served as its head
and Dean intermittently for 24 years. During this time he taught and did research in
the fields of irrigation and soil and water. From 1969 through 1972 he served as Aca-
demic Vice-President for the Technion. During this period, Dr. Finkel maintained an
active consulting practice and served as an expert in irrigation for FAO, other inter-
national agencies, and private consulting firms in 24 countries of Latin America, the
Caribbean, Africa, the Middle East, and the Far East. This activity was divided among
design, project evaluation, and training of local staff. He also served on a number of
missions of UNESCO and the World Bank on educational planning for the developing
countries, as an expert on agricultural and technical education. Since 1972 he has been
the head of the consulting firm of Finkel and Finkel, located in Haifa, Israel. This
firm has done design work in Israel as well as in Iran, the Caribbean, and Latin Amer-
ica.
Dr. Finkel is the author of numerous articles both in his profession and in the more
distant fields of history and archeology as well.
ADVISORY BOARD
Ilan Amir, D.Sc. Shaul Feldman, Ph.D
Faculty of Agricultural Agronomist
Engineering Volcani Institute of Agricultural
Technicon—Israel Institute Research
of Technology Southern Organization
Haifa, Israel Yamit, Israel
DovNir, D.Sc.
Professor
Agricultural Engineering
Department
Technicon—Israel Institute
of Technology
Haifa, Israel
CONTRIBUTORS
Ilan Amir, D,Sc. Herman J. Finkel
Faculty of Agricultural Engineering Professor Emeritus
Technion—Israel Institute of Technology Faculty of Agricultural Engineering
Haifa, Israel Technicon—Israel Institute of Technology
Director
Finkel & Finkel Consulting Engineers, Ltd.
Yaakov Ayalon Haifa, Israel
Agronomist
Extension Cotton Specialist Gideon Peri, Ph.D.
Israel Ministry of Agriculture Scientific Advisor
Tel Aviv, Israel Motorola Israel
Haifa, Israel
Shaul Feldman, Ph.D. DovNir, D.Sc.
Agronomist Professor
Volcani Institute of Agricultural Research Agricultural Engineering Department
Southern Organization Technion—Israel Institute of Technology
Yamit, Israel Haifa, Israel
CONTENTS
Volume I
The Importance and Extent of Irrigation in the World
Soil-Water Relationships
Plant-Water Relationships
Water Requirements of Crops and Irrigation Rates
Soil Salinity and Water Quality
Hydraulics of Open Channels
Measuring Channel Flow
Pipe Flow
Sprinkler Irrigation
Drip Irrigation
Pumps and Pumping
Gravity Irrigation
Index
Volume II
Land Grading
Drainage of Irrigated Fields
Criteria for the Choice of Irrigation Method
Health Hazards of Irrigation
Economics and Costing of Irrigation
Automated Computerized Irrigation
Irrigation Management and Scheduling
Irrigation of Cotton
Irrigation of Sugar Crops
Irrigation of Oil Crops
Irrigation of Cereal Crops
Irrigation of Alfalfa
Irrigation of Citrus
Index
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Volume II
Land Grading 1
Drainage of Irrigated Fields 13
Criteria for the Choice of Irrigation Method 35
Health Hazards of Irrigation 47
Economics and Costing of Irrigation 61
Automated Computerized Irrigation 77
Irrigation Management and Scheduling 91
Irrigation of Cotton 105
Irrigation of Sugar Crops 119
Irrigation of Oil Crops 137
Irrigation of Cereal Crops 159
Irrigation of Alfalfa 191
Irrigation of Citrus 199
Index 215
Volume II I
LAND GRADING
Dov Nir
GENERAL
Most natural soil surfaces, as well as many cultivated fields, are more or less irreg-
ular, consisting of alternating depressions and elevated areas. This results in pondage
of water and interrupted surface drainage on one hand, and in accelerated soil erosion
on the other; other effects may be nonuniformity of yield and crop quality, difficulties
in mechanized field operations, as well as inadequate drainage.
Under irrigated conditions, surface irregularity is even more harmful. Gravity irri-
gation methods require even and continuous overland flows over nonexcessive slopes,
in order to provide uniform wetting of the root zone, decrease deep percolation losses,
and prevent soil erosion. Even when sprinkler (or trickle) irrigation is used, irregular
soil surfaces may cause nonuniformity of wetting and surface pondage.
Consequently, in most cases it is advisable to re-form the land surface so as to pro-
vide continuous, gentle slopes, regulated water flows, and adequate drainage. This is
expensive and therefore must be well-designed, carefully executed, and constantly
maintained. Design should take into account soil type and depth, natural slopes and
drainage system, and the method of irrigation to be employed.
The following three main types of land forming are used:
1. Land leveling is creating an almost horizontal soil surface, sometimes in the form
of bordered basins, with not more than 0.5% slope in the direction of cultivation,
and at most 1% at right angles to this direction. This conserves water and helps
in flood control, and is used both under irrigation and dry farming conditions.
2. Land grading provides a continuous sloping plane surface in the graded plot.
Generally the slope would not exceed 5% and will remain roughly parallel to the
original general slope of the field; this would help decrease the amount of soil to
be moved. A method of land-grading design will be presented here; this includes,
as a particular case, the design of land leveling as well.
3. Land smoothing is a means of removing local elevations and filling local depres-
sions, in order to permit continuous surface water flow to the field outlet. This
is done with no calculated design — with the implement (generally, bulldozer)
operator using his keen eye, good judgment, and past experience to guide him in
the efficient execution of his work. This consists of a rough lowering of elevations
and filling of depressions, followed by two to four fine smoothings in different
directions.
WHEN NOT TO GRADE
Grading should not be done when: (1) soil (infiltration, slopes, depth, etc.) and water
(discharge) conditions counterindicate surface irrigation, (2) soil is shallow; and (3)
topography is so irregular that grading would require excessive earthmoving and will
be too expensive. In general, movement of more than some 1500 mVha would be
considered too costly.
PRINCIPLES OF LAND GRADING
1. Minimum of earth moving
