Contemporary Uses of Limu (marine algae)

271 Pages·2007·10.04 MB·English

Contemporary Uses of Limu (marine algae) in the Vava'u Island Group,
Kingdom of Tonga: an Ethnobotanical Study
Melinda Ostraff
B.S., Brigham Young University, 1994
M.S., Brigham Young University, 1996
A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Interdisciplinary between the School of Environmental Studies and the Department
of Geography
O Melinda Ostraff, 2003
University of Victoria
All rights reserved. This dissertation may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by
photocopy or other means without the permission of the author.
Co-Supervisors: Dr. Nancy Turner
Dr. Steve Lonergan
ABSTRACT
Seaweeds (limu) have a long tradition of human use in Tonga. Poorer families who
reside near tidal areas rely almost exclusively on ocean resources for their family's
nutritional needs and eat limu as part of their regular diet. However, most Tongans
consume limu as a specialty item in their diet, with the exception of times of stress that
follow major hurricanes and droughts. One specific type of limu, tanga 'u (Cladosiphon
sp.), is now being commercially harvested in Tonga and sent to Japan. There are no rules
or laws establishing a gathering season nor restricting the amount of limu that can be
harvested. Conservation is practiced primarily on an incidental level in Tonga, meaning
that conservation takes place mostly because of other issues. Up until now, limu has been
a sustainable resource. However, with the lack of formal conservation methods, limited
research, and recently introduced industrial farming techniques the future of limu as a
sustainable resource is questionable.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page
Abstract
Table of Contents
List of Tables v1
List of Figures vii
Acknowledgements viii
Dedication X
Chapter 1. Introduction 1
1.1 Historical Uses of Seaweed 1
1.2 Literature Review 9
1.3 The Objective of My Work 3 1
1.4 Overview of Dissertation 34
Chapter 2. Background and Context 36
2.1 A Brief History and Context of Tongan Society 36
2.2 Limu Use Throughout the Pacific 42
2.3 My Background 4 8
2.4 General Botany of Algae 5 1
2.5 Ecology 55
Chapter 3. Methodology 57
3.1 An Ethnobotanical Approach 57
My Ethnobotanical Approach
Interviews and Surveys
Profiles of Interviewees
Wrapping-up methodology
Chapter 4. Results
4.1 Collection and Identification of Common Edible Limu in Tonga
4.2 Distribution
4.3 Collecting of Limu
4.4 A Change in Women's Roles
4.5 Limu as Food
4.6 Medicinal Applications
4.7 Commercial Farming and Exportation of Limu
Chapter 5. Discussion 119
5.1 Gender Roles and Issues 119
5.2 Education 128
5.3 Conservation 136
5.4 Contemporary Mores and Issues that Impact Harvesting in Tidal Areas 145
5.5 Commercial Farming of Limu 147
5.6 The Relationship between Limu, Women's Indigenous Knowledge and the
Sustainable Use of the Tidal Areas 155
Chapter 6. Conclusion
Bibliography
Appendix 1. Structured Interview Questions
Appendix 2. Focus Groups
Appendix 3. Dr. Hideo Ohba's list of seaweeds
Appendix 4. List of Tongan seaweed collected by Melinda Ostraff
Appendix 5. Ten village survey
Appendix 6. Tupou survey
Appendix 7. High school survey
Appendix 8. Market survey
Appendix 9. Limu recipes
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Common edible algae found in various Pacific Islands
Table 2. Summery of the five women profiled
Table 3. Common edible types of limu found in Tonga
Table 4. Limu habitats in Vava'u
Table 5. Medicinal uses of limu
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Map of Tonga, with close-up view of Vava'u
Figure 2. Life cycle of Palmaria
Figure 3. Focus group discussion using the artifactlinterview method
Figure 4. Vai Tupou in the tidal area near her home of Okoa, Vava'u
Figure 5. Caulerpa racemosa, known as fuofua in Tongan
Figure 6. Hypnea charoides, known as limu vai in Tongan
Figure 7. Limu habitats and location in Vava'u
Figure 8. Women doingf angota
Figure 9. Map of Vava'u, showing the name and location of ten villages
Figure 10. Numbers of women who gleaned the previous week
Figure 11 . The amount of limu consumed at home vs purchased
Figure 12. Percentage of women gleaning over the past twenty years
Figure 13. The making of limu vai custard
Figure 14. Farming of Eucheuma cottonii
Figure 15. Meliane and her mother Vai, collecting food from the tidal area
Figure 16. Tidal area between Okoa and Koloa islands in Vava'u
.. .
Vlll
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to express my appreciation for the families living in Tonga, many of whom
have provided invaluable information not only for my research, but also for our family's
cultural education. Among those families are the many women who took time from their
lives to help me understand the role limu plays in their lives. I am profoundly grateful to
Vai Tupou, Meleame Tupou, and Matelita Tupou and their families for their willingness
to share their knowledge, time and resources in behalf of my education. Not only did
they spend countless hours with me in the tidal flats, but they also befriended my entire
family and in so doing have become life-long friends.
I would like to thank each of my committee members for their help and guidance with a
special thank you to Nancy Turner whom not only made it possible for me to achieve my
educational goals, but also made it enjoyable along the way.
It is also important that I express gratitude to the following government and private
organizations: The Kingdom of Tonga, for allowing my study to take place; Tongan
Fisheries Department, Ofa Moalae, former head of Fisheries in Vava'u and Silika Ngahi;
current head of Fisheries in Vava'u, for being willing to share pertinent literature; and the
time and resources of Fisheries personnel.; and finally to Seastar Industry Ltd., for
sharing their time and knowledge to acquaint us with their farming methods and storage
facilities.
ix
There are also many others who have assisted me throughout the years with my research.
Although it is impossible to mention them all, I would like to thank the following:
Wendy Wilcox, Ashley Knudsen, Patricia Fefita and Luana Manakofua for being tireless
research assistants; Brian Wilcox and Joe Ostraff families for being the finest, most
flexible and by far the most fun film-crew possible; Brian Wilcox and Ashley Knudsen
for beautiful photographs; Joseph Ostraff, Nancy Turner, Catherine Parry and Janet
Colvin for proofreading and editorial comments; Isabella Abbott, professor emeritus
from the University of Hawaii for help with clarification of taxonomic issues; and finally
the six best kids in the world: Joshua, Jenny, Zachary, Kaleb, Ethan and Hannah for
innumerable hours of babysitting, carrying out field research, listening to boring
conversations about seaweed and enduring a mother who has been absorbed in
researching, studying and typing for what must seem like an eternity.
This study was supported in part by the Ord and Linda Anderson Interdisciplinary
Graduate scholarship.
TOJ oe,
my husband and partner
Without whom, I would not be who I am today -
nor would any of this have been possible.