Table Of ContentConlenls
Prefoce xl
Chopter One
lntroduction
I .l Ground Woler os o Resource I
1 ,2 Tvpes of Ground-Woter Conlqminonts 2
1.3 Drinking-Woter Stondords I l
1.4 Woter '13
Risk ond Drinking
I .5 Sources of Ground-Wqter Contqminqtion l8
1 .5.1 Cotegory I : Sources Designed to Dischorge Subsionces l9
1 .5.2 Cotegory ll: Sources Des;gned io Store, Treot ond/or Dispose ol Subsl,onces 21
1.5.3 Cotegory lllr Sources Designed to Reloin Subslonces During Tronsport 27
1.5.4 Cotegory lV: Sources Dischorging Subsbnces os o Consequence ol
Other Plonned Aciivities 27
L5.5 Cotegory V: Sources Providing o Conduit for Contominod Woter
to Enler Aquifers 30
L5.6 Cotegory Vl: Noturolly Occurring Sources Whose Dischorge is Creobd
ond/or Exocerboted by Humon Activity 30
I .6 Relotive Ronking of Ground"Woter€ontqminotion Sources 3l
1.7 Ground-Woter Contominqlion os o long-Term Problem 33
I -8 Review of Mqthemotics ond the Flow Equotion 34
1.8.1 Derivotives 34
1.8.2 Low
Dorcy's 37
1.8.3 Scolor, Vector, ond Tensor Properlies of Hydroulic Heod ond
HydroulicConductivity 37
1.8.4 De/rvotion of 6e Flow Equolion in o Deforming Medium 39
I -8.5 Mothemoticol Nolotion 42
References 43
Problems 44
Chopler Two
Moss Tronsport in Soturoted Medio 45
2.1 Introduction 45
2.2 Tronsoo bv Concentrotion Grqdienls 45
2.3 Tronsport bv Advection 50
2.4 Mechonicql Dispersion 52
2.5 Hydrodynomic Dispersion 53
2.6 Derivotion of the Advection-Dispersion Equotion for Solule Tronsport 55
2.7 Diffusion versus Disp€rsion 57
2.8 Anolyicol Solutions of the Advocfion-DisPersion Equotion 58
2.8.1 Me$ods of Solution 58
||l
iv Conlenls
2.8.2 Boundory ond Initiol Condilions 59
2.8.3 One-Dimensionol Step Chonge in Concenhotion (First-Type Boundory) 60
2.8.4 OneDimensionol Coniinuous Inieclion into o tlow Field (Second-Type Boundory) 6l
2.8.5 Thir4lype Bor-rndory Condition 65
2.8.6 Field
OneDimensionol Slug Iniection inio o Flow 65
2.8.7 Field
Continuous Iniection inlo o Uniform TwoDimensionol Flow 66
2.8.8 Slug Iniection inlo o Uniform TweDimensionol Flow Field 70
2.9 Effects of Tronsverse Dispersion 74
2.10
Tests to Deiermine Dispersivity 75
2.lO.l Tesh
loborotory 75
2.10.2 Field Tests for Disp€rsivily 78
2.10.3 Single-Well Trocer Test 79
2.11 Scole Effect of Dispersion 80
2.12
Siochqstic Models of Solute Tronsoort 86
2.'12.1 Inkoducfion 86
2.12.2 Stochostic Descriptions of Hetierogen€ity 87
2.12.3 Stochostic Approoch to Solute Tronspori 89
2.13
Froctol Geometry Approoch to Field-scqle Dispersion 92
2.13.1 lnhoduction 92
2.13.2 Froclol Mothsmotics 94
2-13.3 FroctolGeomehy ond Dispersion 95
2.13.4 Froctol ftoling of Hydroulic Conductivity 97
2.14
Regression Anolysis of Relotionship between Apporent Longitudinol
Dispersivitv ond Field ftole 99
2.15 Deterministic Models of Solute Tronsoort 100
Cose study: Borden tondfill Plume
2.16 Medio
Tronsport in Froctured lO7
2.17 Summqrv 112
Chooler Notolion 114
References I 15
Problems I l8
Chopter Three
Tronsformotion, Retordotion, ond Attenuotion of Solut,es 120
3.'f lntroduclion 120
3.2 Clqssificotion of Chemicol Reoctions 121
3.3 Sorption Processes 121
3.4 Equilibrium Surfqce Reoctions 122
3.4.1 Lineor Sorption lsotherm 122
3.4.2 Freundlich Sorption lsoiherm 125
3.4.3 Longmuir Sorption lsotherm 127
3.4.4 Effect of Equilibrium Retordofion on Solute Tronspori 129
3.5 Nonequilibrium (Kinetic) Sorption Models 132
3.6 Sorption of Hydrophobic (Orgonic) Compounds 135
3.6.1 lnkoduction 35
1
Conlenis
3.6.2 Corbon
Porlitioning onlo Soil or Aquifer Orgonic 135
3.6.3 Doto
Estimoting Koc from Kow 137
3.6.4 Dob
Esiimoiing Koc from Solubiliry 137
3-6.5 Estimoiing Koc from Moleculor Shucture 142
3.6.6 Muhiple Soluie Effecis 145
Cose Sludy: Dissolution of creosote in woler
3,7 Homogeneous Reoclions 147
3.7.1 lnhoduclion 147
3.7.2 Chemicol Equilibrium 147
3.7.3 Chemicol Kinetics 148
3.7.4 Tenods in Chemicol Reoctions 149
3.8 Rodioociive Decoy l5l
3.9 Biodegrodotion 152
3.,|0 Colloidol Tronsport 156
Cose Study: Lorge-scole Field Experimenl on lhe Tronspod of Reoctive ond
Nonreoclive Solules in o Scole Aquifer under Nofurol Ground'Woter
Grodienis-Borden, Onlorio
3.1 I Summory '164
Nolotion
Chopter 165
References 166
Problems 168
Chopter Four
tlow ond Moss Tronsport in the Vodose Zone 170
4.1 lnkoduction 170
4.2 Soil os o Porous Medium 170
4.3 Colloids
Soil 171
4.4 Loyer
The Electrostotic Double 172
4.5 Soils
Solinity Effects on Hydroulic Conduclivity of 173
4.6 Zone
Flow of Woter in the Unsqiuroted 174
4.6.1 Soil-Wofer Potentiol 174
4.6.2 Soil-Woter Chorocteristic Curves 176
4.6.3 Hysleresis l8l
4.6.4 Construction of o Soil'WoieFRetention Curve 183
4.6.5 Meosuremenl of Soil'Woler Potentiol I83
4.6.6 Unsoturoied Hydroulic Conductivity 186
4.6.7 Buckinghom Flux Low 189
4.6.8 Richords Equotion 190
4.6.9 Vopor Phose Tronsport 190
4.7 Moss Tronsport in the Unsqluroted Zone '19'l
4.8 Equilibrium Models of Moss Tronspori I93
4.9 Nonequilibrium Models of Moss Tronsport 195
4.10 Anion Exclusion 197
4.11 Zone
Preferentiql Flowpoths in the Vodose 2OO
vi
Contents
4.12 Summory 2O4
Nolotion
Chopler 2O5
References 206
Problems 2O7
Chopter Five
Multiphose Flow 208
5.'f Introduction 208
5.2 Bosic Concepis 209
5.2.1 Rolio
Soturolion 2O9
5.2.2 Interfociol Tension ond Wettobility 2O9
5.2.3
Copillory Pressure 2lO
5.2.4 Relotive Permeobility 212
5.2.5 Flow
Dorry's low For TwoPhose 217
5.2.6 Heod
Fluid Potentiol ond 217
5.3 Migrotion of l-ight Nonoqueous Phose Liquids (l-NAPts| 221
5.4 Volitilizotion of NAPL' 225
5.5 Meosurement of the Thickness of o Flooting Product 231
5.6 Effect of the Rise qnd Foll of the Woter Tqble on the Distributioo of LNAPLs 239
Cose Study: Spill ofJet fuel - Effect of Woter Toble Decline on Product Recovery
5.7 Migrotion of Dense Nonoqueous Phose tiquids (DNAP[S) 242
5.7.1 Mobility
Relotive 242
5.7.2 Vodose Zone Migrotion 245
5.7.3 Verlicol Movement in $e Soturobd Zone 245
5.7.4 Zone
Horizonlol Movemenl in the Soturoied 247
Cose Study: Movement of Tekochloroethene From o Conholled Releose below
the Woter Toble
5.7.5 DNAPI. Flow in Frocture Syslems 253
5.7.6 Dissolution of DNAPI 256
5.8 Moniioring for LNAPLs ond DNAPIs 257
5.9 Summory 260
Chopler Notiotion 260
References 261
Problems 263
Chopter Six
Inorgonic Chemicols in Ground Woter 264
6.1 Introduction 264
6.2
Unib of Meosurement ond Concenlrotion 264
6.3 Chemicol Equilibrium ond the Low of Moss Action 265
Conlents
6.4 Oxidoiion-ReductionReoctions 268
Eh
6.5 Relotionship between pH ond 271
6.5.I pH
271
6.5.2 pH
Relotionship of Eh ond 273
6.5.3 Eh-pH Diogroms 274
6.5.4 Colculoting Eh-pH Stobility Fields 276
6.6 Metol Complexes 285
6.6.1 Hydrotion of Cotions 285
6.6.2 Complexolion 286
6.6.3 Orgonic Complexing Agenls 287
6.7 Chemishy of Nonmetollic Inorgonic Contominonis 288
6.7.1 Fluoride 288
6.7.2 Chlorine ond Bromine 29O
6.7.3 Sultur
29O
6.7.4 Nikogen 292
6.7.5 Arsenic 293
6.7.6 Selenium 293
6.7.7 Phosphorus 294
6.8 Chemistry of Metols 295
6.8.1 Beryllium 295
6.8.2 Slronlium 295
6.8.3 Borium 295
6.8.4 Vonodium 295
6.8.5 Chromium 295
Cose Historyr Hexovolent Chromium Conlominotion of Groundwoter-Odesso, Texos
.6 cobolr
6 .8 297
6.8.7 Nickel 297
6.8.8 Molybdenum 298
6.8.9 Copper 298
6.8.10 Silver 300
6.8.1I Zinc
300
6.8.12 Codmium 300
6.8.13 Mercury 300
6.8.l4 teod
301
6.9 Rodiooctivelsotopes 3O2
6.9.I Inhoducfion 302
6.9.2 Adsorption of Cotionic Rodionuclides 303
6.9.3 Uronium 304
Cose History: Uronium Contominotion of Groundwobr-Fernold, Ohio
6.9.4 Thorium 3O7
6.9.5 Rodium 3o7
6.9.6 Rodon 3lO
6.9.7 Tritilm 3l I
6.10 Geochemicol Zonolion 3l 'l
6.1I Summory 314
Chopter Nototion 315
References 315
Problems 317
viii
Contents
Chopter Seven
Orgonic Compounds in Ground Woter 318
7.1 Introduction 31 8
7 .2 Physicol Properties of Orgonic Compounds 3l 8
7.3 Orgonic Structure ond Nomencloture 320
7 .3.1 Hydrocorbon Closses 32O
7.3.2
Aromotic Hydrocorbons 324
7.4 Tor
Petroleum ond Cool 325
7.4.1 Peholeum Distillotes 325
7.4.2 Tor
Cool 329
7.4.3 Tor
Ground-Woter Coniominotion Associoted with Peholeum Products ond Cool 329
7.5 Functionol Groups 332
7.5.1 Orgonic Holides 332
7.5.2 Alcohols 332
7.5.3 Ethers 336
7.5.4 Aldehydes ond Kelones 336
7.5.5 Acids
Corborylic 337
7 .5.6 Esters 338
7 .5.7 Phenols 338
7 .5.8 Orgonic Compounds Contoining Nilrogen 339
.5.9
7 Orgonic Compounds Contoining Sulfur ond Phosphorus 341
7.6 Degrodotion of Orgonic Compounds 342
7.6.1 Inhoduction 342
7.6.2
Degrodotion of Hydrocorbons 342
7.6.3
Degrodoiion of Chlorinoted Hydrocorbons 346
7.6.4
Degrodotion of Orgonic Pesticides 349
7.7 Field Exomples of Biologicol Degrodotion of Orgonic Molecules 352
7.7.1
Infroduction 352
7.7.2 Chlorinoted Ethones ond Ethenes 352
7.7.3
Aromofic Comoounds 354
7.8 Woter
Anolysis of Orgonic Compounds in Ground 355
.9 Tor
7 Fingerprinting Petroleum Distillotes ond Cool 361
7.10 Summory 369
References 369
Problems 371
Chopter Eight
Ground-Woter ond Soil Monitoring 374
8.1 Introduction 374
8.2 Monitoring-Well Design 374
8.2.1
Generol Informotion 374
8.2.2 Moniforing-Well Cosing 375
8.2.3 Monitorino-Well Screens 381
tx
Conienls
8.2.A Noturolly-Developed ond Filter-Pocked Wells 382
8.2.5 Seol
Annulor 383
8.2.6 Proieclive Cosing 384
8.2.7 Screen length ond Seiting 385
8.2.8 Summory of Monitoring-Well Design 388
8.3 Instqllotion of Monitoring Wells 389
8.3.1 DecontominoiionProcedures 389
8.3.2 Methods of Drilling 390
8.3.3 Drilling in Contominoted Soil 395
8.4 Somple Collection 396
8.5 Instollotion of Monitoring Wells 399
8.6 Monitoring-Well Developmenl 404
8.7 Record Keeping During Monitoring'Well Conslruction 4Q7
8.8 Monitoring Well ond Borehole Abondonment AOq
8.9 Muhiple-level Devices for Ground-Woter Moniloring 409
8.I O Methods of Collecfing o Ground-Woter Somple Without Drilling o Well 412
8.1 I Well Sompling 415
8.1 l.l Inkoduclion 415
8.1 1.2 Well Purging 415
8.1 1.3 Well-Sompling Devices 416
8.12 l-ow Flow Purging of Monitoring Wells 420
8.13 SoilGos Monitoring 421
8.13.1 Introduction 421
8.13.2 Methods of SoilGos Monitoring 422
8.14 Soil-Woter Sompling 423
8.14.I Inkoducfion 423
y'.2
8.I Suclion lysimeters 423
8.1/.3 Instollolion of Suclion Lysimeters 421
8.15 Summory 426
References 427
Chopter Nine
429
Site Remediotion
9.1 Inlroduciion 429
9.2 SourceControl Meosures 430
9.2.1 Solid Wosre 430
9.2.2 Removol ond DisPosol 430
9.2.3 Conloinment 431
9.2.4 Hydrodynomic lsololion 436
9.3 Pumpond-Treot SYslems 438
9.3.I Overview 438
9.3.2 Zones
CoPlure 441
9.3.3 ComPutotion of Coplure Zones 442
9.3.4 OptimizingWithdrowol'lniectionSyslems 451
9.3.5 Permonent Plume Siobilizotion 452
