Commercial Use of Biodiversity - Access to Genetic Resources and Benefit-Sharing

443 Pages·1999·68.455 MB·English

by  Kate, Kerry ten, Laird, Sarah A. (Eds.)

The Commercial Use
of Biodiversity
Access to Genetic Resources
and Benefit-Sharing
Kerry ten Kate and Sarah A Laird
O I I U Q I I I O
Earthscan Publications Ltd, London
This report was prepared for the
European Commission by
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (UK)
First published in the UK in 1999 by
Earthscan Publications Ltd
Reprinted 2000
Copyright O European Communities, 1999
The opinions expressed in this publication
do not necessarily reflect those of the
European Commission
All rights reserved
A catalogue record for this book is available
from the British Library
ISBN: 185383 334 7
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The Convention on Biodiversity (CBD) has brought a long over-
due international focus and control on the access to, and use of,
genetic resources. As the details and consequences of the
Convention are worked out by many different bodies, there has
been much confusion. For anyone wanting information about
the implications of the Convention for their business, research
or livelihood, the data are scattered in a confusing array of
sources. A book that brings this subject together in such a thor-
ough way will be welcomed by many people. The authors of this
book are to be congratulated on their detailed analysis of how
genetic resources are used, of the scientific, technological and
regulatory trends, and on their analysis of the different markets
for many kinds of product based on genetic resources. It is full
of examples from which we can learn.
We are sure that this will be an invaluable resource to policy-
makers, organisations studying and creating uses of genetic
resources and the companies that wish to develop them.
Anyone who has spent time living in or working with people
from the developing world and studying the uses of plants by
indigenous peoples will be acutely aware of their interests, but
also of the need to protect intellectual property rights in order
that uses may be developed which enable these peoples to share
in the resulting benefits.
We are also glad to see the extremely broad coverage of the
different sectors of industry that use biodiversity. We know of
no other analysis of this sort of the horticulture, biotechnology,
crop protection and personal care and cosmetics industries, all
of which are deeply involved in using biodiversity. The chapters
on each sector are presented in a balanced way because of the
extensive consultations that the authors held with representa-
tives of each industry discussed. It is our hope that this book
will be widely used to help governments to draw up more practi-
cal laws and to help industrial companies to ensure the participa-
tion of and reasonable compensation for those countries who
possess and provide access to so much biodiversity, while at the
same time helping industries to avoid legal risks. However, this
book will also be invaluable to universities, research institutes
and botanic gardens as we work out the new role that has been
placed upon us since the CBD was ratified, that of acting as inter-
mediaries between biodiverse countries and would-be users of
their genetic resources.
Professor Sir Ghillean Prance, FRS, VMH
Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew
Sir Richard Sykes, FRS
Chairman, Glaxo Wellcome plc
List of Boxes, Figures and Tables ix 3 Natural Products and the
Pharmaceutical Industry 34
Acronyms and Abbreviations xii
3.1 Introduction 34
Foreword xv 3.2 The pharmaceutical industry 34
3.2.1 Global markets 34
Acknowledgements xvii
3.2.2 Structure of the industry 35
1 Introduction 1 3.3 The role and value of natural
1.1 The market for genetic resources 1 product-derived drugs 40
1.2 The economic value of biological diversity 3 3.3.1 Plants 43
1.3 The CBD and national laws on 3.3.2 Microbial sources 43
access and benefit-sharing 3 3.3.3 Marine organisms 44
1.4 The actors 4 3.3.4 Insects 44
1.4.1 The private sector 5 3.3.5 Animal genetic resources 44
1.4.2 The public sector 5 3.3.6 Human genetic resources 45
1.4.3 Intermediaries 5 3.4. Pharmaceutical industry investment
1.4.4 Communities 6 in research and development 45
1.5 The different perspectives 7 3.4.1 An overview of pharmaceutical industry
1.5.1 The companies’ argument 7 research and development expenditures 45
1.5.2 The source countries’ argument 8 3.4.2 Investment and time to discover
1.6 The sectors 9 and develop a new drug 47
1.6.1 Market size and growth 9 3.5. Pharmaceutical drug discovery
1.6.2 Research 10 and development 49
1.6.3 Cost and time to develop a product 10 3.5.1 Discovery 49
1.6.4 Social, environmental and ethical issues 10 3.5.2 Development 53
1.7 The commercial use of biodiversity: 3.5.3 Trends in pharmaceutical research and
about this book 10 development and the role of natural products 55
1.7.1 Content of the book 11 3.5.4 Conclusions 57
1.8 Conclusion 12 3.6 The acquisition of natural product samples 58
3.6.1 Who collects genetic resources? 58
2 Regulating Access to Genetic
3.6.2 Sourcing samples from libraries
Resources and Benefit-Sharing:
and ex situ collections 59
the Legal Aspects 13 3.6.3 The scale of acquisition programmes 59
2.1 Introduction to the CBD and national law 3.6.4 Types of material acquired 60
related to access to genetic resources 13 3.6.5 Criteria for sample collection 60
2.1.1 The CBD: an overview 13 3.6.6 The ethnobotanical approach to drug discovery 61
2.1.2 The CBD process 14 3.6.7 Representation of geographic diversity
2.1.3 Access to genetic resources in collections 62
and benefit-sharing in the CBD 15 3.7 Benefit-sharing 63
2.1.4 National and regional regulation of access 3.7.1 Monetary benefits 64
to genetic resources and benefit-sharing 16 3.7.2 Non-monetary benefits 68
2.2 The scope and requirements 3.7.3 Public benefits 75
of national and regional law on access 3.8 Conclusions 76
to genetic resources and benefit-sharing 17
4 The Botanical Medicine Industry 78
2.2.1 Scope 17
4.1 Introduction 78
2.2.2 Mutually agreed terms 22
4.2 The botanical medicine industry 79
2.2.3 Prior informed consent 27
4.2.1 Global markets 79
2.3 Conclusions for individuals seeking access
4.2.2 Botanical medicine products 80
to genetic resources and benefit-sharing 32
VI THE COMMERCIAL USE OF BIODIVERSITY
4.3 The structure of the botanical 5.4.2 The demand for access to 'foreign'
medicine industry 83 or 'exotic' material in crop breeding 139
4.3.1 Supply companies 84 5.4.3 Will the demand for access to primitive
4.3.2 Manufacturing and marketing companies 86 and exotic materials grow in the future? 141
4.3.3 Consumer sales 86 5.4.4 The demand for access to improved material
4.4 Market trends 88 in seed breeding 141
4.5 Scientific and technological trends 92 5.4.5 Conclusions on access 142
4.5.1 Developing a new product 92 5.5 Benefit-sharing 142
4.5.2 Identification, extraction and standardisation 94 5.5.1 Introduction 142
4.6 Regulatory trends 96 5.5.2 Monetary benefits 144
4.7 Nutraceuticals 97 5.5.3 Non-monetary benefits 147
4.7.1 US regulatory environment 98 5.5.4 IR64: a case study 149
4.8 Raw material supplies 99 5.6 Conclusions and recommendations 154
4.8.1 'Boombust' cycles 100 5.6.1 Conclusions 154
4.8.2 Major raw material exporting 5.6.2 Recommendations 156
and importing countries 101
6 Horticulture
4.8.3 Wild versus cultivated sources 101
6.1 Introduction 158
4.8.4 Conservation and wise management 102
6.1.1 The definition of 'horticulture' and
4.9 Case study: exploding international demand
the scope of this chapter 158
for a species with widespread traditional
6.1.2 The actors and their role in the development
use: the case of kava (Piper methysticum) 104
of new ornamental varieties 162
4.10 Practices in benefit-sharing 108
6.1.3 The role of horticulture companies
4.10.1 Monetary benefits 108
in breeding new ornamental varieties 164
4.10.2 Non-monetary benefits 108
6.2 Access to genetic resources 171
4.11 Case study: The development of a benefit-sharing
6.2.1 Demand for access to new materials 171
partnership in Vietnam: Panax vietnamensis
6.2.2 Sources of material 172
-a 'new' ginseng 112
6.3 Benefit-sharing 176
4.12 Conclusion 115
6.3.1 Monetary benefits 176
5 The Development of Major Crops 6.3.2 Non-monetary benefits 179
by the Seed Industry 117 6.4 Case studies 180
5.1 Introduction 117 6.4.1 Orchid-breeding and registration 180
6.4.2 The Pipa Horticultural Company Ltd 184
5.1.1 Policy context 1 18
6.5 Conclusions 186
5.1.2 The roles of actors and markets 122
5.1.3 The development of a new variety 126 7 Crop Protection 188
5.2 Regulations relevant to the release
7.1 Introduction 188
of new agricultural crop varieties
7.1.1 The roles of actors and markets 189
on to the market 129
7.1.2 Crop protection products based on
5.2.1 Phytosanitary measures 129
or derived from genetic resources 193
5.2.2 Seed certification and labelling 129
7.1.3 The process of developing
5.2.3 Intellectual property rights 130
a new crop protection product 194
5.2.4 The release and marketing of GMOs 130 7.2 Access to genetic resources 210
5.2.5 The implications for access of seed
7.2.1 Which organisations require access
certification systems, the regulation
to genetic resources? 210
of GMOs, PS measures and IPRs 131
7.2.2 From where are genetic resources obtained? 210
5.3 Access to genetic resources 131
7.2.3 What kind of genetic resources are in demand? 211
5.3.1 Who needs access to genetic resources? 131
7.2.4 How are genetic resources selected
5.3.2 How do breeders select materials for use
for research? 213
in breeding efforts? 133
7.2.5 Future demand for access to genetic resources 214
5.3.3 From where and from whom do breeders 7.3. Benefit-sharing 215
obtain their material? 135
7.3.1 Monetay benefits 215
5.4 What kind of material do breeders want? 137
7.3.2 Non-monetary benefits 21 5
5.4.1 The demand for access to landraces
7.4 Case studies 217
and wild relatives for seed breeding 137
vii
CONTENTS
7.4.1 Benefit-sharing by the International Locust 9.5.3 The acquisition of natural product samples 274
Control Programme, Lutte Biologique contre les 9.6 Sourcing raw materials for manufacture 274
Locustes et les Sauteriaux (LUBILOSA) 217 9.7 Regulatory environment 275
7.4.2 The Latin American International Cooperative 9.8 Demand for access to ‘new‘ species 276
Biodiversity Group (ICBG) 224 9.9 Benefit-sharing 277
7.5 Conclusions 225 9.9.1 Monetary benefits 277
9.9.2 Non-monetary benefits 278
8 Biotechnology in Fields other than
9.9.3 Benefit-sharing conclusions 281
Healthcare and Agriculture 228
9.10 Case studies 281
8.1 Introduction 228
9.10.1 The production and marketing of a species
8.1.1 Introduction to biotechnology products in the ’public domain‘ : the Yawanawa and Aveda
and processes 229 Corporation Bixa orellana Project, Brazil 281
8.1.2 The actors 229 9.10.2 Cohune oil: marketing a personal care product
8.1.3 Quantifying markets 232 for community development and conservation
8.1.4 Some important categories in Guatemala - an overview of the Conservation
of biotechnology products 234 International and Croda Inc partnership 287
8.1.5 The research and development process 238 9.11 Conclusion 292
8.1.6 The regulatory process 239
10 Industry and the CBD 293
8.2 Access to genetic resources 241
10.1 Introduction 293
8.2.1 Who collects genetic resources for biotechnology
10.2 Companies’ awareness and understanding
research and development? 241
8.2.2 Ex situ collections 242 of the CBD 295
10.3 Companies’ opinions of the CBD 296
8.2.3 Acquisition of materials from other organisations 244
8.2.4 How are genetic resources selected for research and 10.3.1 Positive views on the CBD 296
development? 245 10.3.2 Negative views on the CBD 297
10.4 The impact of the CBD on business,
8.2.5 The nature of genetic resources sought 247
and companies‘ response 300
8.2.6 Resupply 248
8.2.7 Choice of suppliers and collaborators 248 10.4.1 Decrease in and consolidation
8.3 Benefit-sharing 250 of collecting activities 300
8.3.1 Monetary benefits 250 10.4.2 Greater recourse to ex situ collections 302
8.3.2 Non-monetary benefits 252 10.4.3 The increasing importance of intermediaries 302
8.4 Casestudies 253 10.4.4 Increased use of MTAs and emphasis
8.4.1 The DiversMNBio Agreement 253 on legal acquisition of samples 303
8.4.2 New England Biolabs 257 10.5 Corporate policies on access to genetic resources,
8.5 Conclusions 260 traditional knowledge and benefit-sharing 303
10.5.1 Corporate policies addressing related
9 The Natural Personal Care
environmental and social issues 308
and Cosmetics Industry 262 10.5.2 Professional codes of conduct related
9.1 Introduction 262 to access to genetic resources, traditional
9.2 The natural personal care knowledge and benefit-sharing 309
and cosmetics market 263 10.6 Institutional policies in response
9.2.1 Definition of category 263 totheCBD 309
9.2.2 Global markets for personal care 10.7 Conclusions 312
and cosmetic products 263
11 Conclusions 3 13
9.2.3 Types of markets and outlets for products 264
11.1 Overview 313
9.2.4 The natural component of the personal care
11.2 Introduction 313
and cosmetics market 264
11.3 Markets for natural products 315
9.2.5 Structure of the industry 265
11.4 The nature and extent of private-sector
9.3 What is ‘natural’? 266
demand for access to genetic resources 316
9.4 Trends that impact demand for natural
11.4.1 Scientific and technological advances 3 16
personal care and cosmetic products 268
11.4.2 Legal and policy environment 317
9.5 Scientific and technological trends 270
11.4.3 Demand for access to traditional knowledge 318
9.5.1 Product and ingredient trends 2 7 1
11.5 The nature and extent of benefit-sharing
9.5.2 The use of traditional knowledge 272
across industry sectors 319
viii
THE COMMERCIAL USE OF BIODIVERSITY
11.5.1 Pharmaceuticals 319 Appendix C Regulatory Frameworks
11.6 The role of intermediaries 322 for Botanical Medicines 337
11.7 Views on the CBD, and corporate
C.1 The EU 337
and institutional policies 322
C.2 Germany 337
11.8 Access and benefit-sharing, sustainable
C.3 Japan 338
development, and the conservation of
C.4 TheUSA 338
biodiversity 323
C.5 TheWHO 339
1 2 Recommendations 32 5
Appendix D Tentative List of Crops
12.1 Overview 325
Under Negotiation as the Scope
12.2 Recommendations to governments on access
of the Multilateral System in the
regulations 325
12.3 Recommendations on the role of intermediary Revised International Undertaking 340
organisations 328
Appendix E Regulatory Frameworks
12.4 Recommendations to industry 328
Relevant to the Release
12.5 Indicators of fair and equitable benefit-sharing 330
12.5.1 Process indicators 330 of Crop Varieties 341
12.5.2 Content indicators 330 E.l Seed certification 341
12.6 Corporate and institutional policies E. 1.1 International certification
on access and benefit-sharing 331 and seed testing schemes 341
12.7 Summary of recommendations 332 E.2 Regulation of the release of GMOs 342
12 .7.1 Recommendations for governments E.3 Plant variety rights 345
regulating access 332
Useful Contacts
12.7.2 Recommendations for companies
and Sources of Information 347
and other organisations seeking access 332
Glossary 356
Appendix A The Influence of Natural
Products on 1997 Pharmaceutical Bibliography 364
Sales Figures 333
Research Methodology and Team 384
Appendix B Scientific and Common Names
Index 391
of Selected Botanical Medicines 336
Acronyms and Abbreviations
ABPI Association of the British Pharmaceutical Industry CUP Cambridge University Press
ACP African, Caribbean and Pacific CXL Codex Maximum Limit
ACRE Advisory Committee on Releases into the DAN1 Department of Agriculture for Northern Ireland
Environment DFID Department for International Development (UK)
ACTS African Centre for Technology Studies (Nairobi) (formerly ODA)
AD1 acceptable daily intake DHHS Department of Health and Human Services
AH6-H Adams Harkness and Hill, Inc DNA deoxyribonucleic acid
AHA alpha hydroxy acid DOE Department of the Environment (UK)
AHP American Home Products Corporation DSHEA Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act
AIPH International Association of Horticultural DSMZ German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell
Producers Cultures (Germany)
ANGAP Association Nationale pour la Gestion des DTI Department of Trade and Industry (UK)
Aires Protegees DUS distinctness, uniformity and stability
AOS American Orchid Society EAPC European American Phytomedicines Coalition
AOSCA Association of Official Seed Certifying Agencies EC European Commission
APHIS Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service EFPIA European Federation of Pharmaceutical
ARC Agricultural Research Council (South Africa) Industries' Associations
ARS Agricultural Research Service EITO European Information Technology Observatory
ASEAN Association of South East Asian Nations EMEA European Agency for the Evaluation of Medicinal
ASTA American Seed Trade Association Products
ATCC American Type Culture Collection EO Executive Order
BAC bacterial artificial chromosome EPA Environmental Protection Agency (USA)
BCCM Belgian Coordinated Collections of Microorganisms EPC European Patent Convention
BCP Biological Control Products EPPO European Plant Protection Organisation
BGVS Bedrijf Geneesmiddelen Voorziening Suriname ESCOP European Scientific Cooperative for Phytotherapy
BHA beta hydroxy acid EU European Union
BLM Bureau of Land Management (USA) EUP Experimental Use Permit
BMS Bristol Myers Squibb FA0 Food and Agriculture Organisation
bn billion FDA Food and Drug Administration (USA)
BSPB British Society of Plant Breeders FTC Federal Trade Commission
CAB1 Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau International GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
CALM Department of Conservation and Land GDP gross domestic product
Management (Western Australia) GFP Association for the Promotion of German Private
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity Plant Breeding
CBG Chicago Botanic Gardens GIFAP International Group of National Associations of
CERES Coalition for Environmentally Responsible Manufacturers of Agrochemical Products
Economies GMO genetically modified organism
CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural GMP good manufacturing practice
Research GMTF Green Muscle Trust Fund
CI Conservation International GPS global positioning systems
CIG Conservation International - Guatemala GRAI Genetic Resources Action International
CIA Chemicals Industry Association GRAS Generally Recognised As Safe
CIAT Centro Internacional de Agricultura (Colombia) GRIN Germplasm Resources Information Network
CIDA Canadian International Development Agency GRRF Genetic Resources Recognition Fund
CILSS Comite Inter-Etats pour la Lutte contre la GTZ Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit
Secheresse dans le Sahel (Germany)
CIMMYT Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de HDC Horticultural Development Council
Maiz y Trigo (Mexico) HPLC high-performance liquid chromatography
CIP Centro Internacional de la Papa (Peru) HSE Health and Safety Executive (UK)
CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered IACBR Inter-Agency Committee on Biological and Genetic
Species of Wild Fauna and Flora Resources (Philippines)
CNA Competent National Authority IARC International Agricultural Research Centre
CONABIA National Advisory Commission for Agriculture ICBG International Cooperative Biodiversity Group
Biotechnology (Argentina) ICH International Conference on Harmonisation
COP Conference of the Parties of Technical Requirements for Registration
CPP crop protection product of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use
CPRO-DLO Centre for Plant Breeding and Reproduction ICRISAT International Crops Research Institute for the
Research, Agricultural Research Department, Semi-Arid Tropics
Wageningen, the Netherlands IDA Institute fur Demoskopie Allensbach
CRADA Cooperative Research and Development IDRC International Development Research Centre
Agreement IDRI International Development Research Institute
CRO contract research organisation IITA International Institute of Tropical Agriculture
CTFA Cosmetic, Toiletry, and Fragrance Association ILO International Labour Or ganisat ion
...
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS Xlll
IMI International Mycological Institute NCEs new chemical entities
IMS Institute for Medical Statistics NCI National Cancer Institute (USA)
INA Institute for Nutriceutical Advancement NCIMB National Collection of Industrial and Marine
INASE Instituto Nacional de Semillas (Argentina) Bacteria
INBio National Institute of Biodiversity (Costa Rica) NDA new drug application
IND/NDA Investigational New Drug/New Drug Application NEB New England Biolabs
INGER International Network for Genetic Evaluation NEDA Netherlands Development Agency
of Rice NEJM New England Journal of Medicine
INPECO Industria Petenera de Corozo NGO non-governmental organisation
INTA Centro de Investigaciones de Recursos Naturales NIAR National Institute of Agrobiological Resources
del Instituto Nacional de (Japan)
Tecnologia Agropecuaria (Argentina) NIH National Institutes of Health (USA)
Inter CEDD International Centre for Ethnomedicine NLEA Nutrition Labeling Education Act (USA)
and Drug Development NPGS National Plant Germplasm System
IOCU International Organisation of Consumers' Unions NYBG New York Botanical Garden
IP indigenous peoples OAEYRG Organizacao dos Agricultores e Extractivistas
IPGRI International Plant Genetic Resources Institute Yawanawa do Rio Gregorio (Brazil)
IPM integrated pest management OAU Organisation of African Unity
IPPC International Plant Protection Convention ODA Overseas Development Administration (UK)
IPR intellectual property right (now DFID)
IRAOH International Registration Authority for Orchid OD1 Overseas Development Institute
Hybrids OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and
IRRI International Rice Research Institute (Philippines) Development
I STA The International Seed Testing Association OGA Ornamental Growers Association
ITAWCAMPINAS Instituto de Technologia de Alimentos OTA Office of Technology Assessments
de Campinas OTC over-the-counter
IU International Undertaking on Plant Genetic O W Oxford University Press
Resources for Food and Agriculture PAMB Protected Area Management Board
IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature PBRs plant breeders' rights
and Natural Resources PCR polymerase chain reaction
IUPAC International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry PCT Patent Cooperation Treaty
JAS Japan Agricultural Standard PGRFA plant genetic resources for food and agriculture
JMPR Joint Meeting on Pesticide Residues PhRMA Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of
JPMA Japan Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association America (USA)
LAMP Latin American Maize Project PI plant introduction
LGU local government unit PI c prior informed consent
LPG liquefied petroleum gas PMA Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association (USA)
LRTAP Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution PNGOPRA Papuan New Guinea Oil Palm Research Association
Convention POP persistent organic pollutant
LUBILOSA Lutte Biologique contre les Locustes et les PPRI Plant Protection Research Institute (South Africa)
Sauteriaux PVPO Plant Variety Protection Office
m million PVRO Plant Variety Rights Office
MAFF Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (UK) R6D research and development
MAFF Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries RAFI Rural Advancement Foundation International
(Japan) RBG Royal Botanic Gardens
MBG Missouri Botanical Garden rDNA recombinant DNA
MCBI Marine Conservation Biology Institute RECA Reflorestamento economico adensado
MCP Mount Cameroon Project RECIEL Review of European Community and International
MGR microbial genetic resources Environmental Law
MHW Ministry of Health and Welfare (Japan) RHS Royal Horticultural Society
MINAE Ministry of Environment and Energy (Costa Rica) RNA ribonucleic acid
MINEF Ministry of Environment and Forest (Cameroon) RRR Renewable Rainforest ResourcesTM
MOSAICC Microorganisms Sustainable Use and Access SADC Southern African Development Community
Regulation International Code of Conduct SAES state and territorial agriculture research station
MRA Mutual Recognition Agreement (USA)
MRL maximum residue level SASA Scottish Agricultural Science Agency
MSDS material safety data sheet SBSTTA Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and
MTA material transfer agreement Technological Advice
NARS national agricultural research system SDC Swiss Development Corporation
NABC National Agricultural Biotechnology Council SEI Sustainable Ecosystems Institute
NBGSS Nanjing Botanical Garden Service Station SENASA National Service for Health and AgriFood Quality
NBPGR National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (India) SIDR Strathclyde Institute for Drug Research
NC National Collection SKB SmithKline Beecham
NCCPG National Council for the Conservation of Plants and SMP Sarawak Medichem Pharmaceuticals Incorporated
Gardens SPC summary of product characteristics
xiv
THE COMMERCIALU SE OF BIODIVERSITY
SPREP South Pacific Regional Environment Programme UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development
SPS sanitary and phytosanitary Organisation
STAFF Society for Techno-Innovation of Agriculture, UNP Universidad Nacional de la Patagonia
Forestry and Fisheries (Japan) UPOV Union for the Protection of New Varieties
SY science person years of Plants
TBGRI Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute USAID United States Agency for International
TCM Traditional Chinese Medicine Development
TMEC Traditional Medicines Evaluation Committee USDA US Department of Agriculture
TRIPS Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual USP United States Pharmacopeia
Property Rights VCMB Vanuatu Commodities Marketing Board
TSCA Toxic Substances Control Act vcu value for cultivation and use
UG University of Georgia WABEL Western Australian Biotic Extract Library
UIC University of Illinois at Chicago WDCM World Data Centre for Microorganisms
ULV ultra-low volume WFCC World Federation of Culture Collections
UNAM Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico WHO World Health Organisation
UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment WIPO World Intellectual Property Organisation
and Development WRI World Resources Institute
UNCLOS United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea WTO World Trade Organisation
UNDP United Nations Development Programme WWF World Wildlife Fund
UN/ECE United Nations Economic Commission for Europe ZINATHA Zimbabwe National Traditional Healers
UNEP United Nations Economic Programme Association