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Clothes make the man: Female transvestism in the Middle Ages
Hotchkiss, Valerie R., Ph.D.
Yale University, 1990
Copyright ©1990 by Hotchkiss, Valerie R. All rights reserved.
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Clothes Make the Man:
Female Transvestism in the Middle Ages
A Dissertation
Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School
of
Yale University
in Candidacy for the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
by
Valerie R. Hotchkiss
May 1990
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®Copyright by Valerie R. Hotchkiss 1990
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
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ABSTRACT
Clothes_Make the Man: Female Transvestism in the Middle Ages
Valerie R. Hotchkiss
Yale University
1990
In numerous and diverse medieval texts women use gender
disguise to participate in such male activities as monastic
life, ecclesiastical governance, travel, business, rescue
missions, and warfare. A hitherto overlooked topic, female
cross-dressing is so widespread in medieval literature and, to
a lesser extent, history that feminine stereotypes, women's
roles in literature, and the perception of women in the Middle
Ages must be reexamined in light of this phenomenon. As
alternative models for female heroism, disguised women combine
traditional feminine virtues with male qualities such as
adventuresomeness, strength, and perseverance. Paradoxically,
however, the empowering force of male disguise reveals the
limitations imposed upon women in medieval society since their
success is contingent upon suppression of female identity.
Moreover, emphasis on the femininity of women in disguise
often betrays biases against women; according to many sources
women are exemplary precisely because they strive to be like
men. This study of medieval cross-dressing covers the
following topics: the symbolism underlying the popular vitae
of transvestite saints; the confluence of hagiography and
biography in the historical case of Hildegund von Schonau; the
legend of the female pope and its diverse interpretations
before and during the Reformation; the phenomenon of disguise
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in secular literature, particularly tales of wives and lovers
who use disguise to rescue men or regain their affections;
and, finally, extraordinary cases of female protagonists in
courtly romance who experience a crisis of sexual identity.
In these discussions, literary analysis is combined with
sociological and historical approaches to explore the wide
range of meanings and manifestations of transvestism in the
Middle Ages.
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Acknowledgments
I am indebted to Ingeborg Glier and Jaroslav Pelikan, my
doctoral advisors, for their generous assistance. Since my
first course at Yale University, Professor Glier has supported
me in every phase of my studies. She carefully read drafts
and revisions, encouraging me on many occasions with her
enthusiasm for this project and for medieval studies in
general. Professor Pelikan's cheerful willingness to take on
yet one more responsibility preserved my ataraxia more than
once during my years in graduate school. Moreover, his
suggestions and candid criticism have helped me remove many
blemishes from this work. In addition, I am grateful to Fred
Robinson for the trouble he took to read the entire manuscript
on very short notice and for his several suggestions for its
improvement. In an indirect way, Professor Robinson has
helped me more than he realizes by the example of fine writing
he has set in his scholarship. These professors have made my
graduate studies at Yale so enjoyable that I almost wish I had
prolonged my stay to work with them a little longer. I also
thank Mark Buckholtz for his helpful criticism of the
dissertation. Finally, I owe an enormous debt of gratitude to
David Price. He read this study at every stage of its
development and never grew weary of discussing the subject
with me. I dedicate this work to him because, without his
encouragement, I might never have gone to graduate school, nor
known the pleasures of studying medieval literature.
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CONTENTS
Chapter page
I. INTRODUCTION.........................................1
II. FEMALE MEN OF GOD: MALE IMPERSONATION IN
MEDIEVAL HAGIOGRAPHY............................13
III. DISGUISE AND DESPAIR: THE STORY OF
HILDEGUND VON SCHONAU.......................... 69
IV. THE FEMALE POPE AND THE SIN OF MALE DISGUISE.......101
V. GENDER INVERSION AND GENDER CONFORMITY............ 133
VI. MALE DISGUISE AND SEXUALITY....................... 183
VII. CONCLUSIONS........................................219
BIBLIOGRAPHY....................................... 229
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