Biojet Fuel in Aviation Applications: Production, Usage and Impact of Biofuels

360 Pages·2021·4.03 MB·English

by  Cheng Tung Chong, Jo-Han Ng

BIOJET FUEL IN
AVIATION
APPLICATIONS
This page intentionally left blank
BIOJET FUEL IN
AVIATION
APPLICATIONS
Production, Usage and
Impact of Biofuels
CHENG TUNG CHONG
JO-HAN NG
Elsevier
Radarweg29,POBox211, 1000AEAmsterdam, Netherlands
TheBoulevard,Langford Lane,Kidlington,OxfordOX5 1GB,UnitedKingdom
50HampshireStreet,5thFloor, Cambridge,MA02139,UnitedStates
Copyright©2021ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved.
Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedortransmittedinanyformorbyany
means,electronicormechanical,includingphotocopying,recording,oranyinformation
storageandretrievalsystem,withoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher.Details
onhowtoseekpermission,furtherinformationaboutthePublisher’spermissions
policiesandourarrangementswithorganizationssuchastheCopyrightClearance
CenterandtheCopyrightLicensingAgency,canbefoundatourwebsite:www.elsevier.
com/permissions.
Thisbookandtheindividual contributionscontainedinitareprotected under
copyrightbythePublisher (otherthanasmaybenotedherein).
Notices
Knowledgeandbestpracticeinthisfieldareconstantlychanging. Asnew research
andexperiencebroadenourunderstanding, changesinresearch methods,professional
practices,ormedical treatment maybecomenecessary.
Practitionersandresearchersmustalwaysrelyontheir ownexperience andknowledge
inevaluating andusingany information,methods,compounds,orexperiments
describedherein. Inusingsuchinformation ormethods theyshouldbemindfulof
theirown safetyandthesafetyofothers,includingpartiesforwhomthey havea
professionalresponsibility.
Tothefullestextentofthelaw,neither thePublishernortheauthors,contributors, or
editors,assume anyliabilityforanyinjury and/ordamagetopersonsorproperty asa
matterofproductsliability,negligence orotherwise,or fromanyuseor operationof
anymethods,products, instructions,or ideascontainedinthematerialherein.
LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-Publication Data
Acatalogrecord forthisbookis availablefromtheLibrary ofCongress
BritishLibraryCataloguing-in-Publication Data
Acataloguerecord forthisbook isavailablefromtheBritishLibrary
ISBN:978-0-12-822854-8
Forinformation onallElsevierpublications visitour
website athttps://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals
Publisher:Matthew Deans
Acquisitions Editor: CarrieBolger
EditorialProjectManager:Aleksandra Packowska
ProductionProjectManager:Prasanna Kalyanaraman
CoverDesigner: GregHarris
TypesetbyTNQTechnologies
Contents
Preface vii
Acknowledgments xi
1. Global Aviation and Biojet Fuel Policies, Legislations,
Initiatives, and Roadmaps 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 GlobaldInternational CivilAgency Organization 1
1.3 EuropeanUnion 16
1.4 UnitedKingdom 34
1.5 Scandinavia 40
1.6 UnitedStatesofAmerica 41
1.7 Canada 57
1.8 Mexico 60
1.9 Brazil 60
1.10 Argentina 66
1.11 China 67
1.12 Malaysia 70
1.13 Japan 71
1.14 Indonesia 73
1.15 Australia 74
1.16 Summary 75
References 76
2. Biojet fuel production pathways 81
2.1 Introduction 81
2.2 Oil-to-jet 81
2.3 Alcohol-to-jet 104
2.4 Gas-to-jet 112
2.5 Sugar-to-jet 128
2.6 Summary 135
References 135
3. Property specifications of alternative jet fuels 143
3.1 Introduction 143
3.2 Jetfuel specifications 144
3.3 Jetfuel fromnonconventionalsources 148
3.4 Propertiesofsyntheticjetfuel 153
v
vi Contents
3.5 Performance characteristics ofaviation turbinefuels 158
3.6 Additives foralternative jetfuels 164
3.7 Jetfuel certificationprocess 168
3.8 Summary 172
References 173
4. Combustion performance of biojet fuels 175
4.1 Introduction 175
4.2 Principlesofaircraftemissions 176
4.3 Componentorrigtestforalternativejetfuel 180
4.4 Flighttest 200
4.5 Fundamentalcombustion properties 202
4.6 Summary 222
References 223
5. Economics of biojet fuels 231
5.1 Introduction 231
5.2 Biojetfuelprices 231
5.3 Potentialfeedstock 255
5.4 Globalbiojetfuelproduction 270
5.5 Barriers tocommercialization 272
5.6 Summary 282
References 283
6. Sustainability of aviation biofuels 287
6.1 Introduction 287
6.2 Lifecycleassessment ofaviationjetfuel 288
6.3 Alternativejetfuelproductionpathway 294
6.4 Lifecyclegreenhouse gasemissionsfordifferent
productionpathways 297
6.5 Lifecycleemissions valuesforCORSIAeligiblefuel 302
6.6 Comparison ofgreenhouse gasemissionperformance 303
6.7 Energybalance analysis 308
6.8 Energyewaterefoodnexus 310
6.9 Summary 331
References 332
Index 337
Preface
Biojet fuel is an emerging renewable energy for aviation applications that
willsoonbecomeanessentialpartoftheaeronauticalsector.Thisparadigm
shift meant that the study of biojet fuel is increasingly becoming part of
mainstream elective courses for undergraduate students pursuing degrees in
chemical engineering, mechanical engineering, and sustainable energy
engineering. This book is intended for use by the aforementioned under-
graduate students, with emphasis placed to give students a holistic view in
termsofthetechnical,economical,political,andsocialaspectsofbiojetfuel.
The text is also intended as a gateway for postgraduate degree studies or as
supplementary text for introductory courses into alternative fuels.
The philosophy behind this book is for it to be the definitive “first”
book for readers wanting to know about the basic fundamental and prac-
tical issues on biojet fuels. This supports the authors’ main goals in writing
the book, which is to provide a comprehensive book for use in classrooms
andalsoforself-study.Thus,thebookiswritteninanaccessiblemannerto
encouragereaderstodevelopdeepunderstandingonthesubjectmatter,by
linkingupscientificknowledge,establishedfacts,latestreal-worlddata,and
viewpoints on biojet fuels.
In addition to students and researchers, the authors are expecting this
book, Biojet Fuel in Aviation Applications: Production, Usage and Impact
ofBiofuels,willalsoappealacademicspreparingfornewcoursestousherin
the age of sustainable fuels, government officials in charge of energy and
environmentalpolicies,industrialplayersdesiringthekeep-upwiththekey
knowledge about the future of aviation fuels, and general public with an
inquisitive mind.
Book organization by chapter
The authors arranged the chapters in a logical manner to bring readers
through a journey of understanding the rationale behind the rise of biojet
fuel around the world, followed by the bulk technoeconomical concerns,
andculminatinginits sustainabilityimpactsonplanetEarth.Thefollowing
paragraphs provide insights on the ensuing chapters:
Chapter 1 addresses the biojet fuel policies, legislations, initiatives, and
roadmaps for global aviation. In this chapter, readers will learn about the
vii
viii Preface
simultaneous efforts by individual governments around the world to
decarbonise their domestic aviation sector and how they combined their
efforts for international flights through the Carbon Offset and Reduction
SchemeforInternationalAviation(CORSIA).Themarket-basedmeasures,
mandates, fuel standards, initiatives, reporting tools, and legally binding
commitmentsallsynergisticallyhelptosupportthetop-downdevelopment
of the biojet fuel industry.
The primary goal of Chapter 2 is to provide readers firm grasp on the
productionmethods,primarilycategorizedasoil-to-jet,alcohol-to-jet,gas-
to-jet, and sugar-to-jet methods. Each of the broader categories contains
production pathways, many of which pertaining to the ASTM D7566
approved pathways. The chapter also discusses how the current biojet
production processes have developed to improve their yields and where
they are in the technology maturity curve.
Chapter 3 highlights the characteristics of biojet fuel that distinguish it
from conventional jet aviation fuel. This covers the typical chemical
composition, physicochemical properties, and their compatibility with
present-day aviation sector infrastructure and usage in jet engines. Readers
willunderstandthesignificanceofthe“drop-in”requirementofbiojetfuel
in blends with fossil jet fuel.
This ties in with Chapter 4 where the neat and blended biojet fuel
performances under combustion are the key focuses. The mechanisms of
biojet fuel spray, combustion, and emissions formation are fundamentally
discussed and validated by research data. This is complemented by the
myriad of flight tests conducted around the world using the various biojet
fuels.
Chapter5emphasizesontheeconomicsofbiojetfuelandidentifiesthe
practical factors affecting the supplyedemand scenario such as crude oil
prices,biojetfuelproductioncosts,feedstockprices,taxation,andsubsidies.
Inadditiontoeconomicconcerns,theavailabilityoffeedstocksandbarriers
to commercialization are also highlighted. The chapter also placed
importanceonthepostpandemiccostissuesandtherecentdevelopmentof
price discovery for biojet fuel.
The final chapter, Chapter 6, provides an overview of pertinent issues
pertainingsustainabilityandenergybalanceviaalifecycleassessment(LCA)
methodology. This is augmented with a holistic view using an energye
waterefood (EWF) nexus approach to resource management. The true
impacts of biojet fuel are fully elucidated in this chapter.
Preface ix
Consistent chapter organization
While the book is intended to be read in the arranged order, the authors
purposefully wrote each chapter in a self-contained manner. This allows
readers to approach the chapters in any order and will still gain the same
insights as those faithfully following the chapters as intended. Within each
chapters, the structure order starts with a general introduction, followed by
the main contents which cover the most salient information, and ending
with a chapter summary to provide readers with the take-home messages.
Each chapter uses numerous tables and figures interspersed with text to
provide data for comparison, reveal trends, summarize concepts, illustrate
concepts, and support conclusions.