Table Of ContentBETWEEN THE EARTH
AND THE HEAVENS
Historical Studies
in the Physical Sciences
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History of Modern Physical Sciences ISSN 1793-0820
Aims and Scope
The series will include a variety of books dealing with the development of physics,
astronomy, chemistry and geology during the past two centuries (1800–2000). During
this period there were many important discoveries and new theories in the physical sci-
ences which radically changed our understanding of the natural world, at the same time
stimulating technological advances and providing a model for the growth of scientific
understanding in the biological and behavioral sciences.
While there is no shortage of popular or journalistic writing on these subjects, there
is a need for more accurate and comprehensive treatments by professional historians of
science who are qualified to discuss the substance of scientific research. The books in the
series will include new historical monographs, editions and translations of original sourc-
es, and reprints of older (but still valuable) histories. Efforts to understand the worldwide
growth and impact of physical science, not restricted to the traditional focus on Europe
and the United States, will be encouraged. The books should be authoritative and readable,
useful to scientists, graduate students and anyone else with a serious interest in the history,
philosophy and social studies of science.
Published
Vol. 5 Between the Earth and the Heavens: Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences
by Helge Kragh (Niels Bohr Institute, Denmark)
Vol. 4 Rocks, Radio and Radar: The Extraordinary Scientific, Social and Military Life
of Elizabeth Alexander
by Mary Harris (University College London Institute of Education, UK)
Vol. 3 Matter and Spirit in the Universe: Scientific and Religious Preludes to
Modern Cosmology
by Helge Kragh (Aarhus University, Denmark)
Vol. 2 Stalin’s Great Science: The Times and Adventures of Soviet Physicists
by Alexei B Kojevnikov
Vol. 1 The Kinetic Theory of Gases: An Anthology of Classic Papers with Historical
Commentary
by Stephen G Brush (University of Maryland, USA)
edited by Nancy S Hall (University of Maryland, USA)
More information on this series can also be found at http://www.worldscientific.com/series/hmps
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HISTORY OF MODERN PHYSICAL SCIENCES – VOL. 5
BETWEEN THE EARTH
AND THE HEAVENS
Historical Studies
in the Physical Sciences
Helge Kragh
Niels Bohr Institute, Denmark
NEW JERSEY • LONDON • SINGAPORE • BEIJING • SHANGHAI • HONG KONG • TAIPEI • CHENNAI • TOKYO
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Published by
World Scientific Publishing Europe Ltd.
57 Shelton Street, Covent Garden, London WC2H 9HE
Head office: 5 Toh Tuck Link, Singapore 596224
USA office: 27 Warren Street, Suite 401-402, Hackensack, NJ 07601
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Kragh, Helge, 1944– author.
Title: Between the earth and the heavens : historical studies in the physical sciences /
Helge Kragh, Niels Bohr Institute, Denmark.
Description: New Jersey : World Scientific, [2021] | Series: History of modern physical sciences,
1793-0820 ; vol. 5 | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020057458 | ISBN 9781786349842 (hardcover) |
ISBN 9781786349859 (ebook for institutions) | ISBN 9781786349866 (ebook for individuals)
Subjects: LCSH: Physical sciences--History.
Classification: LCC Q125 .K685 2021 | DDC 500.209--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020057458
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Copyright © 2021 by World Scientific Publishing Europe Ltd.
All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage and retrieval
system now known or to be invented, without written permission from the publisher.
For photocopying of material in this volume, please pay a copying fee through the Copyright Clearance
Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. In this case permission to photocopy
is not required from the publisher.
For any available supplementary material, please visit
https://www.worldscientific.com/worldscibooks/10.1142/Q0290#t=suppl
Desk Editors: Jayanthi Muthuswamy/Michael Beale/Shi Ying Koe
Typeset by Stallion Press
Email: [email protected]
Printed in Singapore
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To Philip and Lucas
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b2530 International Strategic Relations and China’s National Security: World at the Crossroads
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6"×9" b4141 Between the Earth and the Heavens
Preface
Few readers, whether they have a scientific background or not,
will be aware of the impact of the second law of thermodynamics
on the cultural, religious, and literary science during the Victorian
era. Nor will they know that Darwin’s theory of evolution once
inspired chemical thinking, or that the long discarded word ether
had more than a little in common with the dark energy discovered
by astronomers at the end of the twentieth century. And who has
ever heard of the thought experiment known as Hilbert’s infinite
hotel? These and many other stories are told in the present book, a
collection of new essays on episodes and themes in the modern
history of the physical sciences.
As far as the term “modern” is concerned, by and large, it refers
to the period from the mid-nineteenth century to the early twenty-
first century. From the historian’s perspective, if not perhaps from
the scientist’s, this long period qualifies as the era of modern
science. As for the term “physical sciences,” it is used in more
or less its standard meaning of physics and its allied sciences,
which are here taken to be chemistry, astronomy, and cosmology.
However, it is principally the connection between the different
physical sciences which is the focus of the book that to a large
extent deals with interdisciplinary aspects and how they have
evolved through history. As indicated by the title, an allusion to
Hamlet’s famous statement to Horatio, several of the chapters
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refer to the historical relationship between the laboratory sciences
chemistry and physics and the celestial sciences astronomy and
cosmology. Physical chemistry and astrophysics are well-known
cases of interdisciplinary sciences, whereas cases such as chemical
physics, astrochemistry, and so-called cosmical physics are pre-
sumably less known. Mathematics is not a natural science, but it
features importantly as the language of theoretical physics, which
eventually also became the language of large parts of astronomy
and chemistry. Philosophy is another, and very different, language
or perspective, which mostly appears implicitly but is nonetheless
of great importance, as becomes clear in later sections.
Contrary to what is sometimes called “scientists’ history” —
the triumphalist description of the past as leading smoothly and
progressively toward the present — from a historical perspective
fruitless speculations, controversies, and plain errors are no less
interesting than the successes. They are part and parcel of science,
as testified by several of the cases dealt with in the various chap-
ters. This book is structured in four parts, essentially dealing with
developments in physics, chemistry, astronomy, and cosmology,
respectively. The chapters and sections included in each of the
parts are cases or themes I have previously investigated in schol-
arly detail in academic and therefore less accessible publications.
Although I have attempted to order the sections roughly
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chronologically, there is little unity among them and they can, in
most cases, be read separately. They are not entirely separate,
though, and throughout the book I have made use of cross-refer-
ences in order not to miss the connections to other sections. The
book is provided with a large number of quotations, the references
to which are collected in an appendix except if the source of the
quotation is obvious from the text. On the other hand, to ease
readability I have avoided references to the comprehensive scien-
tific literature and also to the secondary literature made up of
learned books and articles.
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