Table Of ContentAymara
LINCOM Studies in
Native American Linguistics
MJ Hardman
In this series
01 Angel Lopez-Garcia Gramatica muisca
02 Michael Durr et al. (eds.) Language and Culture in Native North
America Studies in Honor of
Heinz..Jurgen Pinnow
04 Christian Lehmann Possession in Yucatec
Structures -functions -typology
05 Lieve Verbeeck Linguistic Acculturation in Mopan Maya
A study of language change in Belizean
Mopan due to Spanish and English culture
and language contact
06 Andres Romero-Figeroa A Reference Grammar of Warao
11 Marcus Maia The Javae Language
30 Sergio Meira A Reconstruction of Proto-Taranoan:
Phonology and Morphology
31 Nilson Gabas, Jr. Phonological Study of the Karo
Language (Brazil)
32 John Stonham Aspects of Tsish"aath Nootka
Phonetics & Phonology
34 Claudine Chamereau Grammaire du pure pecha
35 MJ Hardman Aymara 2001
LlNCOM EUROPA
36 J. Diego Quesada A Grammar of Teribe
Published by LlNCOM EUROPA 2001.
All correspondence concerning LlNCOM Studies in Native American
Acknowledgements
Linguistics should be addressed to:
The work on which this grammar is based began for the author in 1960.
::-: "-~ The major development occurred during the early years of the Aymara
Language Materials Program at the University of Florida 1969-1990.
:) .~. ~ ~ ... Many worked during that period, Juan de Dios Yap ita Moya and Juana
LlNCOM EUROPA .:-;;;.e" Vasquez both of Bolivia, Lucy T. Briggs, Laura Martin, Nora Clearman
Freibadstr. 3 :/:"'3 r~'. England, Prof. Manuel Mamani of Arica, Chile and Prof. Francisco
s.;:; Mamani Canazaca of Tacna, Peru principal among them. There has been
D-81543 Muenchen ~
continuous augmentation since then.
[email protected] The Aymara Language Materials Program was made possible through the
http://home.t-online.de/home/LiNCOM.EUROPA Center for Latin American Studies by the Director Dr. William E. Carter
www.!incom-europa.com with the help of the Administrative Assistant Vivian Nolan. This support
has continued through the work of Bertha Carter.
Also contributing, particularly in the use of the materials for pedagogical
purposes were the Aymara teachers Justino Llanque Chana and Yolanda
Lopez, both of Peru. Other students have contributed as well. specifically
All rights reserved, including the rights of translation into any foreign language. the students in the advanced Aymara grammar seminar of 1986.
No part of this book may be reproduced in any way without the permission of
Many other individuals have contributed over the years; named here are
the publisher. only a few who specifically made recordings: Pedro Copana Yapita
(Qumpi), Martin Lawra (Llamakachi), Elena Pawcara (Llamakachi), Ger
vasio Moya (Llamakachi), Agustin Chana (Llamakachi), Nelida Yanez de
Aguilar (Quripata), Gregorio Machaca (Kutusuma), Juana Mamani
(Surata), Eulogio Cachicatari Coronel (Taraqu), Luis Valencia (Laja),
Printed in E. C. Fermina Moya de Yapita (Tawqa), Basilia Copan a Yapita (Qumpi),
Printed on chlorine-free paper Rosendo Chambi (La Paz), Antonio Yapita (Qalamaya), Carmelo Cahuaya
Perez (Yunguyu), Micaela Cruz de Asqui (Chukuytu), Santiago Quispe
Choquehuanca (Puno).
Justino Llanque Chana of Suqa, Peru has assisted in the the preparation of
this volume. lowe particular thanks to him for his invaluable assistance in
assuring the accuracy and completeness of the current volume.
Though I cannot list the names of everyone who has contributed, I wish to
thank my assistants, Arwen Pritchett. Astrid Martinez and Sujata Varma,
Die Deutsche Bibliothek - CIP Cataloguing-in-Publication-Data
for their help in the preparation of the charts and tables and for proofread
ing.
A catalogue record for this publication is available from Die
I am grateful to all who have helped; may the work be of benefit through
Deutsche Bibliothek (http://www.ddb.de)
them to the Aymara community. The Aymara language is a rich and satis
fying language; it has been a privilege to discover its grammar. If this
presentation of its basic structure has communicated a sense of it richness.
this is in large part because of the generosity of so many who have helped
with its development in more ways than I can say over the last forty years.
ISBN 3 89586 975 9
iii
General
Table of Contents
Phonemic Alphabet ............................................................ iv
Abbreviations and symbols ................................................. v
Detailed table of contents ................................................. vii
1. Introduction ..................................................................... 1
Chapter 2 Phonology ......................................................... 11
Chapter 3 Morphophonemics .......................................... 34
Chapter 4 Overview .......................................................... 44
Chapter 5 Thematics ........................................................ 59
Chapter 6 Verbal Derivational Suffixes ........................... 73
Chapter 7 Verbal Inflectional Suffixes .......................... 100
Chapter 8 Structure ofthe Nominal System ................ 120
Chapter 9 Independent Suffixes .................................. : .. 162
Chapter 10 Sentence Suffixes ......................................... 170
Chapter 11 Syntax ......................................................... 183
Chapter 12 Sample Texts .............................................. 218
Appendices ....................................................................... 232
Map .................................................................................. 246
Bibliography .................................................................... 247
iv v
Phonemic Alphabet
Abbreviations and symbols
All examples in the book are written in the phonemic practical alphabet currently known as the
Phonemic Alphabet [Yapita 1981]. There is a second alphabet also in use, also phonemic, that
differs only in that aspiration is written an h rather than with". marks a suffix; indicates bounded ness; may also indicate bound allomorphs of roots and
suffixes.
Phoneme Grapheme . morphemes within examples are separated by periods.
central vowel lal a { } citation of full morpheme, root or suffix {morpheme}
front vowel IiI Iphoneme, allomorphl
back vowel lui u underscore marks the grammatical point under discussion
vowel length rt double underscore marks associated grammatical points relevant to the discussion
bilabial stop Ipl p dotted underscore marks two or more items glossed together
glottalized bilabial stop Ip?1 p' x-x two glosses for one morpheme are joined with a dash
aspirated bilabial stop Iphl p" italics any form in Spanish or Quechua or language other than English Of Aymara
dental/aleveolar stop It I t cmorpheme morphophonemics: the preceding subscript c indicates that the preceding mOf-
glottalized dental/aleveolar stop It?1 l'
pheme will drop its vowel
aspirated dentallaleveolar stop NI tn
vmorpheme morphophonemics: the preceding subscript v indicates that the preceding mOf-
alveopalatal affricate leI ch
glottalized alveopalatal affricate le?1 ch' pheme will retain its vowel
aspirated alveopalatal affricate lehl ch" morphemec morphophonemics: the succeeding subscript c indicates that the morpheme
velar stop /kl k will drop its vowel when other morphemes are added
glottalized velar stop /k?/ k' morphemev morphophonemics: the succeeding subscript v indicates that the morpheme
aspirated velar stop /khl k"
will retain its vowel when other morphemes are added
post velar stop Iq/ q
glottalized post velar stop Iq?1 q' o
zero allomorph ofthe morpheme {-wa}
basilpaibraiatel dn apsoaslt velar stop IIqmhll qm" ¢ zero complement (a morpheme in its own right (8.25))
+ the sentence suffix {-sa}
alveolar/dental nasal Inl n
? interrogative suffix
alveopalatal nasal IN fi
alveolar/dental lateral III I -t {-ru} case marker I direction toward / 'to'
alveopalatal lateral III II > becomes, gives
alveolar/dental sibilant lsI s >N - V>N nominalization
velar / post velar / pharyngeal fricative Ixl > V - N>V verbalization
bilabial resonant Iw/ w >NAGEN - AGEN nominalization to a person who does X, an agent
alveopalatal resonant Iyl y
aveolar flap (r! 1P OS first person possessive
1P first person nominal I verbalized
1>3 verbal grammatical first to third person 'l>him'
1>2 verbal grammatical first to second person 'I>you'
2POs second person possessive
2P second person nominal I verbalized
2>3 verbal grammatical second to second person 'you>him'
2>1 verbal grammatical second to first person 'you>me'
3pos third person possessive
3P third person nominal I verbalized
3>3 verbal grammatical third to third person 'she>him'
3>2 verbal grammatical third to second person 'she >you'
3>4 verbal grammatical third to fourth person 'she > us'
3>1 verbal grammatical third to first person 'she>me'
vi vii
4POs fourth person possessive Acknowledgements ............................................................. ii
4P fourth person nominal! verbalized Phonemic Alphabet. ........................................................... iv
4>3 verbal grammatical fourth to third person 'we>him' Abbreviations and symbols ....................................................... v
1. Introduction ................................................................ 1
AGEN agentive
1.1 The Aymara People. ........................................................ 2
AR remonstrator Admonisment tense; may co-occur with verbal person, e.g. 2>3AR
1.2 The Language Family ....................................................... 4
ASP aspect - completive or incompletive
BENEF beneficiary 1.3 Overview ofthe Structure of the Aymara Language ................................ 4
CAUS causative 1.3.1. Linguistic Postulates. ..................................................... 4
CONT continuative 1.3.1.1 Data Source - PK, KTL and NPK. ................ : ........................ 5
D desiderative tense; may co-occur with verbal person, e.g. 2>3D 1.3.1.2 Four Person System; Salience of Second Person ................................ 5
DIM diminutive Chart 1.3.1 Grammatical Persons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6
EMF emphatic 1.3.1.3 Human vs. Non-Human ................................................... 6
F future tense; may co-occur with verbal person, e.g. 1>2F 1.3.1.4 Time/Space Perspective. .................................................. 6
HUM human counter suffix 1.3.1.5 ShapelMovement Categorization ............................................ 7
1 imperative tense; may co-occur with verbal person, e.g. 2>31 1.3.2. Grammatical Levels ....................................................... 7
INC inceptive 1.3.2.1 Syntax................................................................ 7
INF inferential 1.3.2.2 Morphology .................................... ,' ....................... 7
KTL knowledge-through-Ianguage data source 1.3.2.3 Morphophonemics ....................................................... 8
LOC locative 1.3.2.4 Phonology ............................................................. 8
MALEF maleficiary 1.4 Previous Studies. .......................................................... 9
MOM momentaneous 1.5 Current Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9
N noun
NI non-involver Chapter 2 Phonology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11
NPK non-personal-knowledge; used alone for the 3>3 non-personal knowledge remote 2.1 Phoneme Inventory and Evidence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. II
NEG negative, suffix or particle 2.1.1 Consonants......................................................... . . .. 11
OBL obligatory 2.1.1.1 Occlusives ...................................... , ..................... II
OWN ownership PK personal knowledge Figure 2.1 Phonetic Chart: Contoids of Aymara. .................................... 12
PAR partitive 2.1.1.3 Nasals ................................................................ 15
PN personal name 2.1.1.4 Other Resonants.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 16
PL plural 2.1.1.4.1 Laterals. ............................................................. 16
PRP purpose 2.1.1.4.2 Flap... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 16
R remote tense; used alone for the 3>3 personal knowledge remote 2.1.1.4.3 Central Resonants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 17
RFLX reflexive, reciprocal 2.1.2 Vowels ................................................................ 17
RSL resultant 2.1.2.1 Vowel Allophones. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 18
S simple tense Figure 2.2 Phonetic Chart: Vocoids of Aymara. .................................... 18
SUB subordinate 2.1.2.2 Vowel Length. ......................................................... 20
SUBJ subject 2.1.2.2.1 Simple Phonemic Length. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 20
ss sentence suffix 2.1.2.2.2 Grammatical Length. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
TN toponym 2.1.2.2.3 /aya! reduction. ....................................................... 21
V verb 2.1.2.2.4 Paralinguistic Length. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2l
2.1.2.2.5 Vowel Length and Stress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2 I
2.1.3 Distribution of Phonemes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Figure 2.3 Phonemic Consonants and Vowels of Aymara. ............................ 22
Figure 2.4 Phonemic Alphabet: Consonants and Vowels of Aymara. .................... 22
2.1.3.1 Vowel Limitations. ..................................................... 22
2.1.3.2 Consonant Limitations. .................................................. 22
2.1.3.3 Frequencies....................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 23
Figure 2.5 Phoneme Frequency ............... ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.2 The Phonological Word. .................................................... 24
f
viii ix
2.21 Canonical Shapes .................................................. , ...... 24 Table 4.1 Aymara Inflectional Persons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 53
2.21.1 Roots ................................................................. 24- 4.1.2.8 Independent Suffixes - Node VIII - Chapter 9 .............................. 53
2.21.2 Suffixes ............................................................... 25 4.1.2.9 Sentence Suffixes - Node IX - Chapters 10 and ............................. 53
2.2.2 Stress .................................................................. 26 4.1.2.10 Nominalizers and Verbalizers - Nodes X and XI - Chapter 5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 54
2.2.3 Definition of the Word. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 26 4.1.3 Constructs .............................................................. 54
2.3 Consonant Clusters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 27 4.1.3.1 Root. ................................................................ 54
2.3.1 Root Clusters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 27 4.1.3.2 Stem .................................................................. 55
2.3.2 Morphological clusters ..................................................... 28 4.1.3.3 Theme...................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 55
Chart 2.6 Morphophonemic Consonant Clusters ..................................... 29 4.1.3.4 Verb ................................................................. 55
Chart 2.7 Morphophonemic Consonant Clusters ..................................... 30 4.1.3.5 The Word ..... ; ....................................................... 55
2.4 Transitional Vowel Phenomena ............................................... 30 4.2 Syntax - Chapter 11. ...................................................... 56
2.5 Metathesis..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 1 4.2.1 Sentence Suffixes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 56
2.6 Spanish Borrowings ........................................................ 31 4.2.2 Syntactic Units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 56
2.6.1 Canonical Form Adaptations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 32 4.2.3 Nominal Sentences ...................................................... , 57
2.6.2 Phonological Adaptations .................................................. 32 4.2.4 Verbal Sentences ......................................................... 57
2.7 Dialect Variation ........................................................... 33
Chapter 5 Thematics......................................................... 59
Chapter 3 Morphophonemics. .••..•.••..•.•..•..•...•.•............•......•... 34 5.1 Definition ................................................................ 59
3.1 Pattern of Variation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 34 5.1.1 Thematic classes ........................................................ 59
3.2 Phonologically Conditioned Allomorphs ........................................ 35 5.2 Class I: Identity and Location ................................................ 59
3.2.1 Canonical Form Conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 35 5.2.1 Identity { -"-}. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 60
3.2.2 Geminate Clusters ........................................................ 35 5.3 Class II: Nominalizers ...................................................... 63
3.2.3 Predominance of luI. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 36 5.3.1 Obligatory .............................................................. 63
3.2.4 Cluster Assimilation of IchC/. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 36 5.3.2 Agentive. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 64
3.2.5 Reduction of /jI to 1"1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 36 5.3.3 Resultant. .............................................................. 65
3.3 Morphologically Conditioned Allomorphs ....................................... 36 5.3.4 Ceremony; Place. ........................................................ 65
3.4 Syntactically Conditioned Allomorphs .......................................... 37 5.4 Nominal Verbals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 65
3.4.1 Noun Phrases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 37 5.4.1 Class III: Purposive Embedder. ............................................ 65
3.4.2 Complements .............................. , ............................ 38
5.4.2 Goal Embedder {-virij} ................................................... 66
Figure 3.1 Morphophonemics - Suffixes requiring consonant both before and after. . . . . . . .. 39
5.5 Class IV: General Embedding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 67
Figure 3.2 Morphophonemics -Suffixes requiring vowel both before and after. ............ 39
5.6 Multiple Thematizations .................................................. " 68
Figure 3.3 Morphophonemics -Suffixes requiring vowel before and consonant after. ..... " 40
5.6.1 with Independents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 71
Figure 3.4 Morphophonemics -Suffixes requiring consonant before and vowel after. . . . . . .. 40
Figure 5.1 Thematics .......................................................... 72
Figure 3.5 Morphophonemics -Suffixes requiring consonant before; either after. ........... 41
Figure 3.6 Morphophonemics - Suffixes requiring vowel before; either after. . . . . . . . . . . . .. 41
Chapter 6 Verbal Derivational Suffixes .......................................... 73
Figure 3.7 Morphophonemics -Suffixes with other patterns ............................ 42
6.1 Verbal Derivational. ....................................................... 73
Figure 3.8 Morphophonemics -Homonyms differentiated by morphophonemics ............ 43
6.1.1 Fused Suffixes ........................................................... 74
Chapter 4 Overview of the Structure of the Aymara Grammatical System ..•.........• 44 6.1.1.1 {-ki-} ................................................................ 74
4.1 Structure of the Aymara Word ................................................ 44 6.1.1.2 {-li-} and {-nki-} ....................................................... 74
6.1.1.3 {-pa-} ................................................................ 74
4.1.1 Morphological Nodes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 44
6.2 Class I Suffixes ........................................................... 75
4.1.2 Description of Morphological Nodes ......................................... 44
Figure 4.1 Morphological Nodes ................................................. 45 6.2.1 {-ccha-} stem causative .................................................... 75
4.1.2.1 Nominal Roots - Node I - see Chapter 9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 46 6.2.2 {-ja-} partitive, 'a piece of the X' ........................................... 75
4.1.2.2 Verb Roots - Node II - Chapters 6 and 7 .............. '. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 46
6.2.3 {-csu-} completive, 'out'. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 76
4.1.2.3 Particle Roots - Node III ................................................ 48
6.2.4 Aspect Plural. ........................................................... 77
4.1.2.4 Interrogative Roots - Node IV ............................................ 49
4.1.2.5 Nominal Suffixes - Node V - Chapter 8 ................................... 52 6.2.4.1 {- vra-} serial action ..................................................... 77
4.1.2.6 Verbal Derivational Suffixes - Node VI - Chapter 6 ......................... 52 6.2.4.2 {-/'api-} gatherer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 78
4.1.2.7 VerbalInflectional Suffixes - Node VII - Chapter 7 ......................... 52 6.2.5 Locatives ............................................................... 78
x xi
6.2.5.1 {-cnuqa-} placer....................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 78 6.5.7 Functional Comparison .................................................... 97
6.2.5.2 {-vqa-} 'down' ........................................................ 79 Tables 6.2 Verbal Derivational Suffixes by Function ................................. 97
Table 6.2.1 Position........................................................... 97
6.2.5.3 {-cxata-} 'on top of' ..................................................... 79
Table 6.2.2 Interaction ......................................................... 98
6.2.6 {-cta-) upward motion, inceptive ............................................ 80 Table 6.2.3 Aspect. ........................................................... 98
6.2.7 Motion Modifiers ........................................................ 81 Table 6.3 Morpheme Frequency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 99
6.2.7.1 f-ckata-} action across.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 81
Chapter 7 VerbaIInflectional Suffixes. . . • • • . • • • • • . .. • • . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . • . .. . . . ... 100
6.2.7.2 {-ykipa-} 'passing by or around a corner' .................................... 82
7.1 Introduction............................................................. 100
6.2.7.3 l-cnaqa-} diffuse or purposeless action. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 82 Chart 7.1 Time and Tense and Data Source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 102
7.2 Verb Roots. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 103
6.2.7.4 hnta-} inward, inceptive ................................................ 82
7.2.1 Verbal Interrogative Roots ............................... : ................ 103
6.2.7.5 {-.nuku-} 'away' ...................................................... 83
7.2.2 Verbal Embedding with {sana} ............................................ 104
6.2.7.6 {-vtata-J scatterer...................................................... 83 7.3 Inflectional Suffixes ....................................................... 105
7.3.1 PriIpary Tenses ......................................................... 105
6.2.7.7 {-cxaru-J preparative .................................................... 84
7.3.1.1 Personal Knowledge Tenses .............................................. 106
6.2.7.8 {-cxasi-J static ......................................................... 84
Chart 7.2 Primary Tense Inflectional Suffixes ................................... " 106
6.2.7.9 hxaya-} attention, focuser ............................................... 84 7.3.1.1.1 Simple Tense ........................................................ 106
7.3.1.1.2 Near Remote ....................................... , ................ 107
6.2.8 Motion Specifiers {-/a-} {-cch'uki-} ....................................... 85
7.3.1.2 Non-personal Knowledge. ...... .. .. . .. . .. ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. 108
6.2.8.1 (-/a-) momentaneous .................................................. 85
7.3.1.2.1 Far Remote ......................................................... 108
6.2.8.2 I-cch'uki-) intensifier, continuant. ......................................... 85 7.3.1.2.2 Inferential. ......................................................... 109
6.2.9 Plural, Multiple {-yrpaya-} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 86 Chart 7.3 Inferential Inflectional Suffixes ......................................... 109
7.3.1.2.3 Non-involver. ....................................................... 110
6.3 Class II Suffixes ........................................................... 86
7.3.1.3 Non-realized Tenses .................................................... 1/2
6.3.1 {-yya-) person causative. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 86
7.3.1.3.1 Future Tense ........................................................ 1/2
6.3.2 {-ysi,-} reflexive ........................................................ 87 7.3.1.3.2 Imperative .......................................................... 113
Chart 7.4 Desiderative and Remonstrator Inflectional Suffixes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 114
6.3.3 {-yni-} proximator....................................................... 87
7.3.1.3.3 Desiderative ......................................................... 114
6.3.4 {-.waya-} distancer ...................................................... 88
7.3.2 Compound Tenses ....................................................... 115
6.3.5 {-yrapi-J {-yraqa-} ....................................................... 88 7.3.2.1 Remonstrator ......................................................... 115
7.3.2.2 Inferential Compounds .................................................. 116
6.3.5.1 f-vrapi-} beneficiary................................................... 88
7.3.2.3 Non-involver Compounds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. I 17
6.3.5.2 {-.raqa-} maleficiary ................................................... 89
7.3.3 Inflectional Distinctive Features. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 117
6.3.6 {-vsi2-} continuative ...................................................... 89 Chart 7.5 Non~involver Compound Tense Inflectional Suffixes ........................ 118
6.3.7 hka-} incompletive, preceder. ............................................ 90
Chapter 8 Structure of the Nominal System. .................................... 120
6.3.8 {-cxa-} completive, regressive .............................................. 90
8.1 Nominal Root Classes ..................................................... 120
6.3.9 (-yp-) many-involved, plural. .............................................. 91 8.1.1 Nominals .............................................................. 120
6.4 Morphophonemic Summary ................................................. 92 8.1.1.1 Open Subclass of Nominals-Nouns. ...................................... 120
Table 6.1 Suffixes by morphophonemic requirements ................................. 92 8.1.1.2 Closed Subclasses of Nominals - Positional Roots and Numbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 121
6.5 Comparisons and combinations ............................................... 93 8.1.1.2.1 Positional Roots. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 121
8.1.1.2.2 Numbers ........................................................... 121
6.5.1 Causatives {-ycha-} and f-vya-} ............................................. 93
8.1.1.2.2.1 Non-human.................................................... . .. 121
6.5.2 TheDirectionals {-vqa-J 'down', {-csu-} 'out', I-cta-} 'up', {-vnta-} 'in' .......... 93 8.1.1.2.2.2 Humanitive ........................................................ 123
6.5.3 The Completives hsu-} and hxa-} ......................................... 94 8.1.1.2.2.3 Allomorphs of/maya! and /paya!. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
8.1.1.2.3 Temporals .......................................................... 124
6.5.4 The Distancers {-.nuku-} and {-ywaya-} ...................................... 94
8.1.1.2.3.1 Unrestricted Time Roots ............................ , ................ 124
6.5.5 Proximator {-yni-J and Distancer {-ywaya-} ................................... 95 8.1.1.2.3.2 Restricted Time Roots. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 124
6.5.6 Suffix Combinations ...................................................... 95 8.1.1.2.3.3 Bound Time Forms .................................................. 125
I
!,
xii xiii
8.1.1.2.3.4 Time Roots in Combination wi Nominals of Other Classes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 126 8.2.4.1 {-vru} directional. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 148
8.1.2 Pronouns.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 126
8.2.4.2 {-vta} directional. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 150
8.1.2.1 Human Pronouns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 126
8.1.2.2 Demonstratives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 127 8.2.4.3 f-vtaki} beneficiary/purposive ............................................ 152
8.1.2.2.1 Derived Demonstratives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.28 8.2.4.4 {-ympi} conjoiner 'and' ................................................. 154
8.1.3 Interrogatives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 129
8.2.4.4 {-vna} possessive/directional. ............................................ 155
8.1.4 Negative. ............................................................. 132
8.2.5 Zero Complement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 158
8.1.5 Ambiguous Nominallverb Roots. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 132
8.2.6 {-kama} distributive/attainer 'up to, until'. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 159
8.2 Nominal Suffixes ......................................................... 133
8.3 Complex Nominal Formations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
8.2.1 Suffixes of Limited Distribution ............................................ 133
8.2. I.l Suffixes of Ambiguous Root/suffix Status ................................... 133
Chapter 9 Independent Suffixes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 162
8.2.Ll.l {-qallu} diminutive - {qallu} 'young of animals' ........................... 133
9.1 Definition and Occurrence Patterns ........................................... 162
8.2.1.1.2 l-vtuqi} 'around, on the side' - {tuqi} 'around' ............................ 133
9.2 Description of the Independents .............. " .............................. 164
Chart 8.1 Limited Class Suffixes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 134 9.2.1 f-vpini} - f-vpuni} emphatic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 164
8.2.1.2 {-cch'a} 'size, extent'. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 134
9.2.2 {-yki} limitative. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 165
8.2.1.3 {-citu} diminutive .................................................... 135
9.2.3 {-yraki} aggregate .............................................. " ....... 166
8.2.1.4 {- cia} 'quantity'...................................................... 135
9.2.4 {-ciama}simulator. ..................................................... 168
8.2.1.5 {-Iayku} 'for, because of, on account of, for the sake of, in exchange for'. . . . . . . .. 135
8.2.1.6 {-cpura} 'between, among' reciprocal. .................................... 136
Chapter 10 Sentence Suffixes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 170
8.2.1.7 {-vqata} ............................................................. 136 10.1 Description of Sentence Suffixes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
8.2.1.8 {-vrara} 'full, covered with, very, spotted with' distributive plural. . . . . . . . . . . . .. 136 10.1.1 {-xa} attenuator, topic marker, affirmative .................................. 171
lO.1.2 {-wa} affirmative, absolute. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 171
8.2.1.9 {-ywisa} 'without' .................................................... 137
10.1.3 {-sal} information question. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 173
8.2.2 Set I Nominal Suffixes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 137
8.2.2.1 Locationals ........................................................... 137 10.1.4 {-ti} yes/no interrogative negative ........................................ 173
Chart 8.2 Set I Suffixes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 138 10.1.5 {-sti} follow-up ....................................................... 175
10.1.6 {-ya} politive, vocative, attenuator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 176
8.2.2.1.1 {-csa} 'side' ........................................................ 138
8.2.2.1.2 {-ckata} 'across,front' ................................................ 138 lO.1.7 {-s~} lister, aggregate, indefinator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 176
8.2.2.1.3 {-vwja} 'place' ...................................................... 139 10.1.8 {-cha71 ~} Alternative interrogative. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 178
10.1.9 {-pi} exclamatory, reconfirmational. ...................................... 179
8.2.2.1.4 {-ciita} 'exactly a spot' ........................................ '" .... 139
10.1.10 {-y"} exclamatory. ..................................................... 179
8.2.2.1.5 {-cxa} 'on, above, over'. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 139
10.1.11 {-chi-} hearsay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 179
8.2.2.1.6 {-v xa} 'beside' ..................................................... 139 10.1.12 {-m} hearsay ......................................................... 179
8.2.2.2 {-vni} additive, humanitive, ownership ........................... " . . . . . .. 140 10.2 Sentence Suffix Combinations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Chart 10.1 Sentence Suffix Combinations ......................................... 180
8.2.2.2.1 f-vni} additive ....................................................... 140
8.2.2.2.2 {-vni} humanitive .................................................... 140 Chapter 11 Syntax. ......................................................... 183
8.2.2.2.3 {-vni} ownership. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 140 11.1 Basic Sentence Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 183
11.1.1 Statement {xalwa}. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 185
8.2.2.3 {-vnaka} plural ....................................................... 141
11.1.2 Questions {xalti} and {xalsa} ............................................. 187
8.2.2.4 Personal Possessives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 142 11.1.3 Negation ............................................................. 188
'8.2.3 Ordered by Immediate Constituency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 143 11.1.4 Summary of Basic Sentences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 189
8.2.3.1 {-vmpi} conjoiner/agentive/instrumental. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 11.2 Grammatical Structures Markable in Basic Sentences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 190
8.2.3.2 I-cpacha} includer, 'all, same, the very, (it)self .............................. 144 11.2.1 Words........................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 190
11.2.2 Phrases.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 191
8.2.3.3 {-ciama-} simulator 'like, appears (to be)'. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 145
11.2.2.1 Verb Phrases ........................................................ 191
Chart 8.3 Set II Suffixes ....................................................... 148 11.2.2.2 Noun Phrases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 193
8.2.4 ComplementslRelationa]s (Directionals) ..................................... 148 11.2.2.2.1 Modifier-head Phrases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 193
xiv 1
11.2.2.2.2 Head + Head Phrases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 199
11.2.2.2.2.1 Head + head phrases: Reduplication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 200 A Grammar of Aymara
11.2.2.2.2.2 Head + Head phrases: {talru} Movement. " ....... " ................... 201
11.2.2.2.2.3 Head + Head Phrases - Coordination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 201 M.J. Hardman
11.3 Permutations of Basic Sentences ............................................ 203
11.3.1 Obligatory Permutations. ................................................ 203
11.3.2 Interrogative Permutations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 205
11.3.3 Optional Permutations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 207
11.4 Multi-Sentence Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 208 Chapter I
11.4.1 Context and Paragraph Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 208 Introduction
11.4.1.1 Juxtaposition ......................................................... 208
11.4.1.2 Conjoining with {-sa2}· . • • . • • • • . • • . • • . • . . • • • • . • • • • • . • . • • . . • . • • . • . . . . •• 208
11.4.1.3 Conjoining with {-cha}. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 209 Aymara is today a language of the high Andean plain between the highest peaks of the Andes
11.4.1.4 Conjoining with (uka} ................................................. 209 mountains and the shores of the world's highest navigable lake. It is the first language of a third
11.4.2 Embedding with {sana}. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 210 of the population of Bolivia, and the major indigenous language of Southern Peru and Northerrn
11.4.3 Subordination......................................................... 212 Chile. It is a member of the Jaqi family of languages. The other two extant languages of the
12.4.3.1 Verb Reduction Subordination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 212 family, Jaqaru and Kawki, are spoken in the Yauyos valley of Peru, and are endangered.
11.4.3.1.l Subordination with {salsina}. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 212
11.4.3.1.2 Subordination with {iri/fiataki}. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 213 Because Aymara is the first language of approximately one-third of the population of Bolivia,
11.4.3.2 Subordination with {-xa} ............................................... 213 with a total estimated speakers of some three million,l the language has carried political import.
11.4.3.3 Subordination with {uka} .............................................. 214 Although the situation is changing today, those who speak only Aymara have been effectively
11.4.4 Combined Subordinations ................................................ 216 excluded from active participation in the power of the state. Attempts since the 1952 revolution
to make possible greater use of the native languages in the ministries, the movement after the
Chapter 12 Sample Texts. • • • • . • . • • • • • . • • . • • • . . . • • . • . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . • . . . . . . • .• 218 Chaco war with Paraguay (1828-1938) in favor of Aymara as the national language (as Guarani
12.1 Sample Text - Personal Note .............................................. 218 is to the Paraguayans), and recent declarations (e,g. 1970) of Bolivia as a trilingual nation have,
12.2 Sample Text - Gentile tale ................................................ 220 until recently, had little impact. Even those Aymara who speak Spanish. but not natively, find
12.3 Sample Text - Skit about Potato Harvesting .................................. 223 barriers. The original impetus for the project of which this grammar is one result was the desire
12.4 Sample Text - Fox folktale ................................................ 228 of speakers of Aymara to apply linguistic science to (a) helping the Aymara overcome the
linguistic barriers and, hopefully, the social prejudice justified or rationalized by the existence of
Appendices• •••.•.••••••••••.•••..•••••.••.•.•...••..•..•.•.......•......••. 232 same and (b) helping all Aymara speakers appreciate the richness of their language, and thus
Appendix 1.1 Possession in Aymara.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 232 counteract some of the consequences of social prejudice.
Appendix 1.2 Ambiguity in Aymara. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 233
Appendix 1.3 Homonymy in Aymara .......................................... " 234 The Aymara-speaking population in Peru is considerably smaller than that of Bolivia, both in
Appendix 2 Time Units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 236 absolute size and in relation to the nation. It is, nevertheless, the dominant language of the
Appendix 2.1 Days of the Week.. " ....... " ................................... 236 southern area of Peru, throughout Puno and down towards the coast in Moquegua and Tacna,
Appendix 2.2 Months ......................................................... 236 with branches into Arequipa. The problems, moreover, are similar. At one point Peru (1971)
Appendix 2.3 Representative Temporal Formations ................................. 236 also declared Aymara (with Quechua and all other indigenous languages) an official language of
Appendix 3 Particles ......................................................... 238 the nation. In both countries knowledge of a native language has been declared a requirement
Appendix 4 Word Order. ............... '" ............... " .................. 239 for normal school students and other students planning to be professionals working in
Appendix 5 Syntactic Conjugation by Grammatical Person and Data Source ............. 240 community development and/or the rural areas. Also, off and on, bilingual education is declared
Appendix 6 Basic Questions and Answers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 242 official policy. Both types of official policies, in both countries, lack a great deal in terms of
Appendix 7 Spanish Borrowing Patterns .......................................... 244 implementation.2
l. The figure given here is based on what census material is available. on personal observation.
and on more recent estimates by Aymara scholars; specifically, the estimate is from the Instituto de
Lengua y Cultura Aymara (ILCA): each of the three major languages of Bolivia - Aymara, Quechua.
Spanish -is the native language of approximately one third of the population. This leaves Spanish as a
minority language as a first language. Bilingualism and even trilingualism are common. Quechua
enthusiasts dispute this statistic claiming much higher figures for their language. Higher estimates for
Quechua reflect multilingualism on the part of many Aymara business women who also speak Quechua
because of its market utility throughout Peru and into Argentina; also, the prestige of Quechua from Inca
fame influences guesstimates.
2. The right wing coup d'etat in Bolivia in 1971, e.g. undid the 1970 decrees, dropping Aymara
and Ouechua from the normal school curriculum, for example. However, by 1985 students could maior
I
t
!
2 3
The considerable number of Aymara speakers in northern Chile (above 20,000) has recently The Aymara have never been sedentary except where serfdom imposed travel limitations. The
become the focus of attention primarily on the part of the Universidad de Tarapaca in Arica roads throughout the Andes, with Jaqi toponyms, testify to the ease of movement over very
(northern Chile). Bilingual education programs are now coming into existence. difficult terrain. The women do most of the marketing, both wholesale and retail, domestic and
international. It is, therefore, not unusual to find Aymara women who know little or no Spanish
Recent years, moving into the twenty-first century, have brought some change, particularly with who have traveled widely, particularly if the women are from free communities. Recent
the successful implementation of bilingual education and with the increase in the number of settlements outside the area of primary concentration include settlements in the colonizing areas
Aymara speakers with professorships in various universities in the area. of Peru (la montana) and Bolivia (the Yungas)6 and a considerable colony in Buenos Aires, in
addition to movements to Lima, Arequipa, La Paz, Arica and other urban centers.
Although the Aymara community is politically divided by the border between Peru and Bolivia
which divides Lake Titicaca between the two countries and the borders with Chile, the Catholicism is the official religion for the Aymara and is necessary for the internal functioning of
community itself is one in language and culture. Dialect differences are relatively minor, as are the community with the co-parent system and the fiesta system, both of which require clerical
cultural differences.3 The Aymara have maintained the essence and uniqueness of their culture sanction, at least at some level. However, the church as an institution and priests as a class are
through conquests, humiliations, serfdom, and whatever else has fallen upon them from outside. not wellliked.7 The current religion of most of the Aymara is a new construct made of materials
As one Aymara woman, a strong, intelligent, gifted person, said to me, 'The Incas came and available from Andean currents and from European currents. During the middle years of this
conquered us, and then the Spaniards came and conquered us, but we aren't conquered yet!" century Protestantism had a great impact within the Aymara community: From all reports, the
One of the ways in which the Aymara have used their culture to survive and to bring them people were attracted first because the missionaries established schools, and secondly because
successfully into the twentieth-first century is through presenting to the world a mask which the work ethic preached by the fundamentalist Christians Who went as missionaries dovetailed
inhibits further probing - in fact, most social scientists have taken this mask to be4 the culture, with the value placed on work by the Aymara.
much to the amusement of the Ay'mara when they hear themselves so described. Another facet
of the culture which has functioned in this way is being blessed (or cursed, depending on whose The original materials of the Aymara Language Materials Program including the grammar and
perspective) with a language that is extremely complex from the Indo-European point of view, the teaching materials reflect in the amount of material produced, the care taken on each page of
with a concomitant placing of very high value on its correct, creative, witty, elegant use, with the student volume, the endless corrections so that no error or even improper Aymara should slip
strong sanctions on the improper, skimpy use of linguistic resources. These sanctions may by, the exquisite detail in Juana Vasquez' paintings, are all ample testimony to the value of work
readily apply to outsiders who come across as arrogant and rude because they try to speak to the Aymara and to the insistence on perfection.
Aymara using Indo-European categories and therefore behave as non-humans, meriting the type
of language interaction (or lack thereof) reserved for non-people or people who do not behave in The material culture of the people is heavily influenced by the exigencies of surviving at high
human ways. altitudes - the altiplano itself is 12,800 feet above sea level. Potatoes were domesticated in the
Andes, and, with other related tubers, are the staple crop. In the Andes they are highly varied;
1.1 The Aymara People the International Potato Center in Peru has identified some 10,000 varieties
{http;/Iwww.cipotato.org/}; recipes specify which kind of potato. Aymara agricultural practices
The Aymara are a predominantly rural people, farmers and pastoralists, with the marketing of do not differ greatly from those of their neighbors, although landholding does [Carter 1965]
their own or their neighbors' products playing an important role. They feed the cities, and thus [Carter 1967J [painter 1981]. The dress is primarily adapted Spanish 17th century dress, as
the polities that would exclude them are, nevertheless, dependent upon them. Increasingly, a prescribed by various colonial decrees. Tools are those common to the Andean area.
substantial number are urban. Education is very highly valued; parents make extreme sacrifices
in order to provide an education for their children. In some cases emigration is necessary; in Family ties are widely maintained; kinship is reckoned usually through five generations. Kinship
others, the community builds a school and then petitions the government for teachers andlor networks are extended through the spiritual/fictive kinship of the co-parent system. Mutual
provides them itself [Copana 1981J, Sometimes, the initial sacrifice for the community school is obligations are established between kin groups at the time of marriage, with each new spouse
followed by emigration in order to al10w a child to complete higher studies. Many become owing the family of the other for having relinquished a productive adult [Collins 1983]. There
teachers; others enter the professions. Although some rural Aymara do break away from are also political organizations on several levels, as well as coJradfas for maintenance of the stat
community contacts, the overwhelming majority do not. The urban setting acts as one more ues of saints and the sponsoring of fiestas. Community organizations see to communal lands.
ecological niche in the archipelago pattern of land holding [Murra 1972], People in the capitals,
for example, lobby for the benefit of the community and render other urban services for their tournaments, lecture series, publications, festival celebrations) than in La Paz, Bolivia, but they
rural/markamasil 'townmates', who, in their turn, keep the urban Imarkamasif in cheese and nevertheless operate quite efficiently in both countries.
other rural products.5 6. These are primarily treated as additional ecological niches, sometimes replacing ones that have
been closed because of politics [Collins 1981].
in indigenous languages at the Universidad Mayor de San Andres. This program has grown and now
(2000) has good academic respectability. 7. For a discussion of one such interaction, where a priest attempted to impose his own criteria
for a sacred fiesta which contradicted Aymara norms, see [Carter & Mamani 1982]. The original
3, There are now specific studies which show the scope of differences [Briggs 1976)
translations of the Lord's Prayer said Inanakan awkixa/ 'our father, but not yours' (not what some
[Briggs 1980]. One Aymara scholar says that some differences can lead,to some difficulty in
Christians assume it means). This was accepted by the Aymara as perfectly logical, i.e., we must worship
understanding [Carvajal 1979a; Carvajal 1979b].
the white man's god who obviously isn't ours. I have heard the prayer recited in this form even now
4, For a discussion of such problems see [Hardman 1988a]. The difficulties of earlier investiga- [Briggs 1981a] (but see for a more sophisticated analysis for more serious grammatical problems with the
tors [Tschopik 1946; LaBarre 1948] can be understood as a product of time and place, but much current whole matter). The pishtaco (Aymara (k"arik"ari), Spanish sacamantecas, 'Indian Lard Reducer'). a
work, e.g. [Buechler 1971], is still plagued with the same problems.
much feared 'bogey-man' type among the Aymara, is believed to be either the priest himself or sent by
5. The urban 'cultural centers' are more formallv orl>f1ni7f'.n in r ,imn Pf'nl (inrlnrlinO' ",,..'o>r him. It is also believed to be extremely dangerous to travel in the same convevance with a oriest.
