Atom, Molecule, and Cluster Beams II: Cluster Beams, Fast and Slow Beams, Accessory Equipment and Applications

390 Pages·2000·41.74 MB·English

by  Professor Dr. Hans Pauly (auth.)

Springer Series on
ATOMIC, OPTICAL, AND PLASMA PHYSICS 32
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH
[
ONLINE LIBRARY
Physics and Astronomy
http:// www.springer.de/phys/
Springer Series on
ATOMIC, OPTICAL, AND PLASMA PHYSICS
The Springer Series on Atomic, Optica!, and Plasma Physics covers in a compre
hensive manner theory and experiment in the entire field of atoms and molecules
and their interaction with electromagnetic radiation. Books in the series provide
a rich source of new ideas and techniques with wide applications in fields such as
chemistry, materials science, astrophysics, surface science, plasma technology, ad
vanced optics, aeronomy, and engineering. Laser physics is a particular connecting
theme that has provided much of the continuing impetus for new developments
in the field. The purpose of the ser ies is to cover the gap between standard under
graduate textbooks and the research literature with emphasis on the fundamental
ideas, methods, techniques, and results in the field.
27 Quantum Squeezing
By P.D. Drumond and Z. Spicek
28 Atom, Molecule, and Cluster Beams 1
Basic Theory, Production and Detection of Thermal Energy Beams
ByH. Pauly
29 Polarization, Alignment and Orientation in Atomic Collisions
By N. Andersen and K. Bartschat
30 Physics of Solid-State Laser Physics
By R.C. Powell
(Published in the former Series on Atomic, Molecular, and Optica! Physics)
31 Plasma Kinetics in Atmospheric Gases
By M. Capitelli, C.M. Ferreira, B.F. Gordiets, A.I. Osipov
32 Atom, Molecule, and Cluster Beams II
Cluster Beams, Fast and Slow Beams, Accessory Equipment and Applications
ByH. Pauly
Series homepage-http://www.springer.de/phys/books/ssaop/
Vols. 1-26 of the former Springer Series on Atoms and Plasmas are listed at the end of the book
Hans Pauly
Atom, Molecule,
and Cluster Beams
It
Cluster Beams, Fast and Slow Beams,
Accessory Equipment and Applications
With 165 Figures
t
Springer
Professor Dr. Hans Pauly
MPI ftir Striimungsforschung
Bunsenstrasse 10, 37073 Giittingen, Germany
ISSN 1615-5653
ISBN 978-3-642-08716-5
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data: Pauly, Hans, 1928-. Atom, molecule, and duster beams/
Hans Pauly. p. cm.- (Springer series on atomic, optical, and plasma physics, ISSN 1615-5653 ; 28) lndudes
bibliographical references and index. Contents: 1. Basic theory, production, and detection of thermal energy
beams.
ISBN 978-3-642-08716-5 ISBN 978-3-662-05902-9 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-05902-9
1. Partide beams. I. Title. II. Series. QC 793.3.B4 P38 2000
539.i3-dc21 00-038829
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is
concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting,
reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or
parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its
current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from
Springer-VerIag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH.
Violations are \iable for prosecution under the German Copyright Law.
© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2000
Originally published by Springer-VerIag Berlin Heidelberg New York in .000
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publicat ion does not imply,
even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and
regulations and therefore free for general use.
Typesetting: Camera-ready copies by the author
Cover concept by eStudio Calmar Steinen
Cover design: design & production GmbH, Heidelberg
Printed on acid-free paper SPIN: 10771865 57/3141/ba -5 4 3 2 10
Preface
Volume 1 contains a description of the gas kinetic and gas dynamic foundations of
molecular beam formation as well as a detailed survey of the methods of produc
tion and detection of thermal energy beams together with the underlying physical
principles and examples of typical applications.
The second volume completes these methods with a description of the pro
duction and detection of fast molecular beams as well as of the production and
analysis of cluster beams (Chaps. 1 and 2). The latter are not only an important
means to investigate the properties of this "new phase of rnatter" intermediate
between single atorns and molecules and the solid-state bulk material, but also
offer many technical applications in lithography, epitaxy, catalysis, cbemical engi
neering, and material science. The subsequent cbapters, 3 and 4, deal with the ac
cessory equipment of molecular beam work sucb as selectors and analyzers for
velocity and quantum state. Finally, the reader is introduced to the fascinating new
field of atom manipulation, slow and cold atoms, atom optics, and atom interfer
ometry (Cbap. 5). This new topic of molecular beam work, which bas experienced
an impetuous growth during recent years, bas already led to great scientific
success and holds important perspectives for the future.
As in Voi. 1, a special effort is made to outline the physical foundations ofthe
various experimental methods and to explain and demonstrate them by numerous
scientific applications in various research areas, paying special attention to recent
developments. Numerous references allow readers interested in further details easy
access to supplementary literature. Thougbout Voi. 2, references to Voi. 1 are
marked by the Roman numeral 1 in front of the chapter or section number.
Thus, although the cboice of the material reflects the tastes and inclinations of
the author, it is boped that this book will be both a useful reference for scientists
engaged in researcb with molecular beams and a textbook for advanced under
graduates and graduate students in order to give them a solid background in these
techniques. Scientists and engineers interested in different areas where molecular
beams represent an alternative to other techniques, may also be interested in read
ing this book so that they can estima te the usefulness of molecular beams in their
work.
Many people whose names have already been mentioned in the preface of
Voi. 1, ba ve helped me while writing this book. Again, their valuable aid is
gratefully acknowledged. In particular, 1 am indebted to my long-standing
VI Preface
colleague and friend Prof. R.K.B. Helbing from the University of Windsor for his
valuable help while preparing the English version of this book and for numerous
suggestions and improvements.
Finally, my thanks are also due to Springer Verlag for the pleasant coopera
tion and the expert help during the course of the whole project.
Gottingen H. Pauly
April2000
Contents
1. Fast Beams, Production and Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Charge Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.1 Ground-State Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.2 Metastable Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13. . . . . . . . .
1.1.3 Rydberg Atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17. . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Neutralization of Negative Ions by Electron Detachment. . . . . . . . . .1 .8
1.2.1 Photodetachment..... .... ... .. ...... .... ..... .... .... . 18
1.2.2 Collisional Detachment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21. . . . . . . .
1.2.3 Autodetachment.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 . . . . . . . . .
1.3 Neutralization oflons by Collisions with Metal Surfaces . . . . . . . . . 2. 2.
1.4 Aerodynamic Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 4. . . . . . . . .
1.5 Plasma and Gas Discharge Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 2.9 . . . . . .
1.5.1 Arc-Heated Jet Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 9.
1.5.2 Radiofrequency Discharges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 4. . . . . . .
1.5.3 Laser-Sustained Plasmas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 . . . . . . .
1.5.4 Hollow Cathode Discharges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 7. . . . . . .
1.5.5 Corona Discharges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. 7. . . . . . . . .
1.5.6 Glow Discharges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. 7. . . . . . . . .
1.6 Laser Ablation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.9 . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7 Sputtering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8 Photolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 .8 . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8.1 Beam Experirnents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. 8 . . . . . . . . .
1.8.2 Gas-Phase Measurements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9 . . . . . . .
1.8.3 Oriented Reactants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9 . . . . . . . . .
1.9 Electron-Stirnulated Desorption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. 0. . . . . . .
1.1 O Other Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1 0.1 Mechanical Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 . . . . . . .
1.10.2 Shock Waves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. 2. . . . . . . . . .
1.1 0.3 Recoil Nuclei of Radioactive Decays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 2. . . . .
1.11 Some Examples of Fast Beam Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 . . . .
1.11.1 Coaxial Laser Spectroscopy with Fast Beams . . . . . . . . . . . 5. 3. .
1.11.2 Photofragment Translational Spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. 6. . .
1.11.3 Precision Measurements of Lifetirnes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. 7. . . .
1.11.4 Merged Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 9. . . . . . . . . .
VIII Contents
1.11.5 Injection of Fast Beams into Fusion Plasmas . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62. . .
1.11.6 Fast Beam Methods for Plasma Diagnostics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63. . .
1.12 Fast Beam Detection.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6 5. . . . . . . . . .
1.12.1 Surface Ionization (Langmuir-Taylor Detector). ..... .... .. . 65
1.12.2 Bolometer and Pyroelectric Detectors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.7 . . . .
1.12.3 Laser-Induced Fluorescence. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6 8. . . . . .
1.12.4 Secondary Electron Emission. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. 8. . . . . .
1.12.5 Collision-Induced Fluorescence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. 9 . . . . . .
2. Production and Diagnostics of Cluster Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7. 1. . . . .
2.1 Survey ofMethods for Cluster Formation. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. . ...... 75
2.2 Supersonic Jets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7. 7. . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1 Influence ofNozzle Shape... ....... .. .... .. ... ... . . . . . . 7. 8
2.2.2 Influence of Carrier Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 0. . . . . . . .
2.2.3 Technical Realization ofCluster Sources...... ... ....... . .. 81
2.3 Gas Aggregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82. . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4 Surface Erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.5 . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.1 Sputtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 6. . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.2 Laser Ablation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... .. . .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . 87. . . .
2.4.3 Pulsed Arc Discharges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 9. . . . . . . . .
2.4.4 Liquid Metal Ion Sources (LMIS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91. . . . . .
2.5 Laser-Induced Pyrolysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9. 2 . . . . . . . . .
2.5 .1 Multiphoton lnfrared Dissociation and Photosensitization . . . . . .9 3
2.5.2 Source Design and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 . . . . . .
2.6 Doping ofClusters and Production ofMixed Clusters.... ... . ..... . 96
2.6.1 Formation ofMixed Clusters by Coexpansion..... ..... .... . 97
2.6.2 Gas Aggregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9. 7. . . . . . . . . .
2.6.3 Partide Capture ("Pick-up" Sources) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 7 . . . .
2.6.4 Cluster Aggregation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.9 . . . . . . . . .
2.6.5 Laser Ablation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 0.0 . . . . . . . . . .
2.6.6 Pulsed Arc Discharges.... ... .. ..... ... .. ...... . . . . . . . 1.0 1.
2.7 Generation ofExcited Clusters.. ... ... ... .... .. .. ......... ... . 101
2.8 Determination of Size Distributions in Cluster Beams . . . . . . . . . . .1 0.2 . .
2.8.1 Electron Diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 0. 2. . . . . . . . .
2.8.2 Light Scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 0.5 . . . . . . . . . .
2.8.3 Gas Scattering..... ............ ...... ... .. ... . . . . . . . 1. 07.
2.8.4 Atom Diffraction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 0. . . . . . . . . .
2.8.5 Mass Spectrometric Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 2. 2. . . . . . .
2.8.6 Other Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 2.5 . . . . . . . . . .
2.9 Some Cluster Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 2. . . . . . . . .
2.9 .1 Cluster Beam Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13. 2. . . . . . . .
2.9.2 Cluster Impact Lithography .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 3. . . . . . .
2.9.3 Examp1es of Experimental Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 3.4 . . . . .
2.9.4 Cluster Beams in High Energy Physics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13. 6 . . . .
Contents IX
3. Velocity Measurement and Selection. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 .3 7. . . . . .
3.1 Mechanical Selectors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 3.8 . . . . . . . . .
3.1.1 Slotted Disk Velocity Selector (Fizeau Principle). . . . . . . . . . .1 39. .
3.1.2 Calibration..... ... ...... ......... ....... ... .... ..... . 150
3 .1.3 Special Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 5.2 . . . . . . . . . .
3 .1.4 Slotted Cylinder Velocity Selector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 53. . . . . .
3 .1.5 Other Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 .5 .4 . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Time-of-Flight Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 5. 6 . . . . . . . . .
3.2.1 Resolution and Methods ofDeconvolution... ... ... .... .. .. . 157
3.2.2 Cross-Correlation Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6 .1 . . . . . . .
3.2.3 Experimental Details. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 64. . . . . . . . .
3.2.4 Calibration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 6.9 . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 Doppler Shift Measurements... .... ..... .. ..... .. ... .. .... ... 171
3.3.1 Experimental Technique and Resolution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7 .2 . . .
3.3.2 Measurements ofDifferential Scattering Cross Sections . . . . . . . 17.5
3.4 Deflection in Inhomogeneous Magnetic Fields. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.7 . . . 1
3.4.1 Two-Wire Field ............. ...... .......... .. .... .... 178
3.4.2 Magnetic Hexapole Fields. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 8. 4. . . . . . .
3.5 Deflection by Gravity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9 1. . . . . . . . . .
3.6 Determination ofthe de Broglie Wavelength ......... ........ .... 193
3. 6.1 Diffraction from Crystal Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9 .3 . . . . .
3.6.2 Diffraction from Transmission Gratings. .... .. . .. . . . . . . . . .1 9. 5 .
3. 7 Beam Deflection by Photon Recoil . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . .. . .. . . . . . .1 .9 5 .
4. State Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9 .7 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1 Potentials of Cylinder-Symmetric and Planar Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 9. 9.
4.1.1 Monopo1e Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 0.0 . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.2 Multipole Fields ............. .. .... ....... ...... .. .... .. 201
4.1.3 Two-Dirnensional, Periodic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.0 .2 . . . . .
4.2 Deflection in Inhomogeneous Magnetic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.0 4. . . .
4.2.1 Effective Magnetic Dipole Moment of Atorns . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.0 .4 . .
4.2.2 Two-Wire Field (Rabi Field) . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . .2 . 06.
4.2.3 Quadrupole Sector Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 1. 1. . . . . . . .
4.2.4 Two-Pole Field ...... ...... ..... ... .. ..... ... ..... .... . 213
4.2.5 Multipole Fields. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 1. 3. . . . . . . . . .
4.3 Deflection in Inhomogeneous Electrostatic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 20. . .
4.3 .1 Effective Electric Dipole Moment of Molecules . . . . . . . . . . . 22.1 . .
4.3.2 Rabi and Two-Pole Fields .. .... ... ......... .. .. .... ... .. 222
4.3.3 Electrostatic Multipole Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 2. 4 . . . . . .
4.3.4 Other Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 3. 0. . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 Magnetostatic and Electrostatic Traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 .3 .0 . . . .
4.4.1 Three-Dirnensional Quadrupole Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 .3 2 . . . .
4.4.2 Ioffe Trap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 3. . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5 Nonadiabatic (Majorana) Transitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 4. . . . . .
X Contents
4.6 Technical Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 3. 5. . . . . . . . . . .
4.7 Applications of State Selection by Inhomogeneous Fields ....... ... . 240
4. 7 .1 Molecular Beam Magnetic and Electric Resonance Method . . . . .2 40
4.7.2 Cesium Frequency and Time Standard .......... ..... . .. .. . 242
4.7.3 Atomic and Molecular Collisions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 4.4 . . . . .
4.7.4 Cluster Investigations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 7. . . . . . . . .
4. 7.5 Atomic Polarizabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 48. . . . . . . . .
4.7.6 State Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 9. . . . . . . . . . .
4.7.7 Gas-Surface Interaction ...... ............. ..... .. .. ..... 249
4.7.8 Miscellaneous Applications ........ ................ .. ... . 250
4.8 Optical Methods for State Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 51 . . . . . .
4.8.1 Optica! Pumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5 .2 . . . . . . . . .
4.8.2 Selective State Depopulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 5.2 . . . . . .
4.8.3 Selective Population of an Atomic State. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 54. . . .
4.8.4 Selective Population of a Molecular State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 55. . . .
4.8.5 Two-Photon Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 5.7 . . . . . . . .
4.8.6 Photodissociation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6 0. . . . . . . . . .
4.8.7 State Selection in Excited States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6 .0 . . . . .
4.8.8 Stimulated Raman Adiabatic Passage (STIRAP) . . . . . . . . . . .2 6. 3. .
5. Slow Atom Beams, Traps, and Atom Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26. 7. . . . .
5.1 Radiation Pressure Forces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 6. 8. . . . . . . . .
5.1.1 Photon Recoil Force ....... ... ... ... ......... .. .. .. . .... 269
5.1.2 Optica! Dipole Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7 1. . . . . . . . .
5 .1.3 Optica! Beam Slowing by Photon Recoil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 7. 3. . . .
5 .1.4 Atomic Beam Deflection by Photon Recoil . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 7.8 . . .
5.2 Trapping and Cooling of Atoms.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28. 2. . . . . . .
5.2.1 Optica! Molasses and Cooling Mechanisms. . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.8 2. . .
5.2.2 Atom Traps .... .. .. .... .... ............. ..... ........ 284
5.2.3 Atom Traps as Sources for Slow and Cold Atorns ... . . . . . . . . . 2. 87
5.2.4 Methods of Beam Compression .... .. ....... ... ..... .. ..... 289
5.3 Examples of Applications ..... ...... ... .... .. ........ .... .... . 291
5.3.1 Precision Spectroscopy and Frequency Standards ..... .. .... .. 291
5.3.2 Atomic Collision Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 .9 2 . . . . . . .
5.3.3 Bose-Einstein Condensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29. 3. . . . . . .
5.3.4 Photoassociative Spectroscopy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 9. 5. . . . . .
5.3.5 Atom Lithography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 9.7 . . . . . . . . .
5.4 Atom Optics ........ .... ....... ..... ..... ...... .... ....... . 298
5.4.1 Atom-Optica! Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 99. . . . . . . .
5.4.2 Lenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. 0.0 . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.3 Mirrors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. 0.3 . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.4 Atom Waveguides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. 0.8 . . . . . . . . .
5.4.5 Diffraction Gratings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.0 9. . . . . . . . .
5.4.6 Prisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. 15. . . . . . . . . . . . .