Table Of ContentPage i
Astrophysical Techniques
Page ii
By the same author
Early Emission Line Stars
Stars, Nebulae and the Interstellar Medium
Observational Physics and Astrophysics
Journeys to the Ends of the Universe
A Guided Tour of the Beginnings and Endings of Planets, Galaxies and the Universe
Optical Astronomical Spectroscopy
Page iii
Astrophysical Techniques
Third Edition
C R Kitchin
University of Hertfordshire Observatory
Page iv
© IOP Publishing Ltd 1998
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher. Multiple copying is permitted in accordance with the terms of licences issued by
the Copyright Licensing Agency under the terms of its agreement with the Committee of ViceChancellors and Principals.
British Library CataloguinginPublication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
ISBN 0 7503 0497 9 hardback
0 7503 0498 7 paperback
Library of Congress CataloginginPublication Data are available
Consultant Editor: Professor A J Meadows
First edition published 1984 by Adam Hilger Ltd and reprinted 1988
Second edition published 1991 by IOP Publishing Ltd under the Adam Hilger imprint and reprinted 1996 under the imprint of Institute of Physics Publishing
Third edition published 1998 by Institute of Physics Publishing, wholly owned by The Institute of Physics, London
Institute of Physics Publishing, Dirac House, Temple Back, Bristol BS1 6BE, UK
US Editorial Office: Institute of Physics Publishing, The Public Ledger Building, Suite 1035, 150 South Independence Mall West, Philadelphia, PA 19106, USA
Typeset in TX using the IOP Bookmaker Macros
E
Printed in the UK by J W Arrowsmith Ltd, Bristol
Page v
For
Christine
Page vii
Contents
Preface xiii
Standard Symbols xv
1 1
Detectors
1.1 Optical and Infrared Detection 1
Introduction 1
Detectors 1
Detector Types 1
The Eye 2
Photomultipliers 7
A Detector Breviary 18
ChargeCoupled Devices (CCD) 20
Other Types of Detectors 30
Photovoltaic Cells 30
Photoelectromagnetic Detectors 33
Thermocouples 33
Pyroelectric Detectors 34
Bolometers 34
Photoconductive Cells 35
Phototransistors 36
Charge Injection Devices (CID) 36
Photographic Emulsion 37
Gas Cells 37
Television Tubes 37
Image Intensifiers 37
Golay Cell 37
Ultraviolet Detectors 37
Future Possibilities 38
Noise 39
Intrinsic Noise 39
Signal Noise 40
Digitisation 41
Page viii
Telescopes 42
Optical Theory 42
Telescope Designs 62
Exercises 90
1.2 Radio and Microwave Detection 91
Introduction 91
Detectors and Receivers 92
Radio Telescopes 97
Construction 105
Exercises 107
1.3 Xray and Gammaray Detection 107
Introduction 107
Detectors 109
Geiger Counters 109
Proportional Counters 110
Scintillation Detectors 111
Gas Scintillation Proportional Counters 112
Charge Coupled Devices 112
Compton Interaction Detectors 113
Spark Detectors 113
Cerenkov * Detectors 113
Solid State Detectors 113
Microchannel Plates 114
Nuclear Emulsions 115
Shielding 116
Imaging 116
Collimation 117
Coincidence Detectors 120
Occultation 120
Reflecting Telescopes 120
Resolution and Image Identification 125
Spectroscopy 126
Grating Spectrometers 126
Bragg Spectrometers 127
Polarimetry 129
Observing Platforms 130
1.4 Cosmic Ray Detectors 131
Background 131
Detectors 131
Realtime Methods 132
Residual Track Detectors 138
Indirect Detectors 143
Arrays 144
Page ix
Correction Factors 145
Atmospheric Effects 145
Solar Effects 146
Terrestrial Magnetic Field 146
Exercises 147
1.5 Neutrino Detectors 149
Background 149
Chlorine 37 Detectors 151
Waterbased Detectors 153
Galliumbased Detectors 155
Other Types of Detectors 155
Direct Interaction Type Detectors 155
Indirect Interaction Type Detectors 156
Geological Detectors 156
Scattering Detectors 157
Exercises 157
1.6 Gravitational Radiation 158
Introduction 158
Detectors 160
Direct Resonant Detectors 160
Direct, Nonresonant Detectors 161
Indirect Detectors 163
Exercises 164
2 165
Imaging
2.1 The Inverse Problem 165
Deconvolution 166
2.2 Photography 170
Introduction 170
Structure of the Photographic Emulsion 171
The Photographic Image 174
Processing 182
Hypersensitisation 185
Temperature Effects 186
Liquid Bathing Effects 186
Gas Immersion Effects 186
Preexposure 187
Postexposure Techniques 187
Faint Image Contrast Enhancement 188
Autoradiographic Image Retrieval 188
Film Types 188
Techniques of Astronomical Photography 189
Analysis of Photographic Images 190
Special Applications 191
Page x
2.3 Electronic Imaging 192
Introduction 192
Arrays 193
Television and Related Systems 193
Image Intensifiers 196
Magnetically Focused Image Intensifiers 196
Electrostatically Focused Image Intensifiers 197
Proximity Focused Image Intensifiers 198
Cascades 199
Recording 199
Photon Counting Imaging Systems 199
Electronographic Cameras 200
2.4 Scanning 201
2.5 Interferometry 204
Introduction 204
Michelson Radio Interferometer 205
Michelson Stellar Interferometer 223
Intensity Interferometer 227
Reflection Interferometers 232
Exercises 233
2.6 Speckle Interferometry 233
2.7 Occultations 237
Background 237
Techniques 241
Analysis 244
2.8 Radar 245
Introduction 245
Theoretical Principles 245
Equipment 251
Data Analysis 252
Meteors 254
Exercise 255
2.9 Electronic Images 255
Image Formats 255
Image Compression 256
Image Processing 257
Grey Scaling 257
Image Combination 258
Spatial Filtering 259
3 260
Photometry
3.1 Photometry 260
Background 260
Magnitudes 260