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AppliedMultidimensionalGeologicalModeling
InformingSustainableHumanInteractionswiththeShallowSubsurface
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Applied Multidimensional Geological Modeling
Informing Sustainable Human Interactions with the Shallow Subsurface
Edited by
Alan Keith Turner
DepartmentofGeology&GeologicalEngineering
ColoradoSchoolofMines
Golden,CO80401
USA
BritishGeologicalSurvey
EnvironmentalScienceCentre
(cid:2) Keyworth,NottinghamNG125GG (cid:2)
UK
Email:[email protected]
Holger Kessler
BritishGeologicalSurvey
EnvironmentalScienceCentre
Keyworth,NottinghamNG125GG
UK
Email:[email protected]
Michiel J. van der Meulen
TNO,GeologicalSurveyoftheNetherlands
POBox80015
NL-3508TAUtrecht
TheNetherlands
Email:[email protected]
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Thiseditionfirstpublished2021
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v
Contents
ListofContributors xxi
Acknowledgments xxviii
PartI IntroductionandBackground 1
1 IntroductiontoModelingTerminologyandConcepts 3
AlanKeithTurner,HolgerKessler,andMichielJ.vanderMeulen
1.1 MappingorModeling–WhichIsCorrect? 4
1.1.1 DefinitionoftheTerm“Model” 5
1.1.2 EvolutionoftheGeologicalModelConcept 5
1.2 WhyUse“Multidimensional”? 6
1.3 EvolutionofDigitalGeologicalModeling 6
(cid:2) 1.4 OverviewoftheBook 8 (cid:2)
1.4.1 IntendedAudience 8
1.4.2 PartI:IntroductionandBackground 8
1.4.3 PartII:BuildingandManagingModels 9
1.4.3.1 TechnicalConsiderations–Chapters5–8 9
1.4.3.2 AlternativeModelBuildingApproaches–Chapters9–12 9
1.4.3.3 ModelApplicationandEvaluation–Chapters13–15 9
1.4.4 PartIII:UsingandDisseminatingModels 9
1.4.5 PartIV:CaseStudies 10
1.4.6 PartV:FuturePossibilitiesandChallenges 10
References 10
2 GeologicalSurveyDataandtheMovefrom2-Dto4-D 13
MartinCulshaw,IanJackson,DenisPeach,MichielJ.vanderMeulen,RichardBerg,andHarveyThorleifson
2.1 Introduction 13
2.2 TheRoleofGeologicalSurveyOrganizations 13
2.2.1 EstablishmentofGeologicalSurveys 13
2.2.2 SystematicversusStrategicMappingApproaches 15
2.2.3 GeologicalMappingbyGeologicalSurveys 15
2.2.4 DifficultyinMaintainingAdequateFinancialSupport 16
2.3 ChallengesFacingGeologicalSurveyOrganizations 17
2.4 AGeologicalMapisNotaPieceofPaper 17
2.4.1 EarlyGeologicalMaps 18
2.4.2 EarlyDigitalMappingandModeling 19
2.4.3 AdvantagesofDigitalMapping 20
2.5 TheImportanceofEffectiveDataManagement 21
2.6 TheChallengesofParameterization–PuttingNumbersontheGeology 21
2.6.1 ParameterizationofGeologicalModels 21
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vi Contents
2.6.2 ModelScale 22
2.6.3 ParameterHeterogeneity 22
2.6.4 ModelUncertainty 23
2.7 Useof3-DGeologicalModelswithProcessModels 23
2.8 TheEvolvingMissionoftheGeologicalSurveyoftheNetherlands 24
2.9 ExperienceWithaMultiagencyandMultijurisdictionalApproachto3-DMappingintheGreatLakes
Region 26
2.10 Conclusions 28
References 29
3 Legislation,Regulation,andManagement 35
BrianMarkerandAlanKeithTurner
3.1 Introduction 35
3.2 LayersoftheSubsurface 35
3.3 LegalSystems 38
3.4 LandOwnership 39
3.5 RegulationandManagement 43
3.5.1 GroundInvestigation 43
3.5.2 SpatialPlanning 43
3.5.3 NaturalResources 45
3.5.4 EnvironmentalandCulturalIssues 49
3.6 ApproachestoSubsurfaceDevelopment 49
3.6.1 ExistingSpaces 49
3.6.2 NewDevelopments 50
3.7 InvolvingStakeholders 51
3.8 DeliveryofInformation 52
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3.9 TheRoleof3-DSubsurfaceModels 53
3.10 Conclusions 59
References 61
4 TheEconomicCaseforEstablishingSubsurfaceGroundConditionsandtheUseofGeological
Models 69
JenniferGates
4.1 Introduction 69
4.2 TheNatureofGeotechnicalInvestigations 70
4.2.1 GeotechnicalInvestigationsforManagementofGeotechnicalRisk 70
4.2.2 HowGeologicalModelsSitWithintheGeotechnicalInvestigationProcess 71
4.2.3 PotentialImpactofGeotechnicalRisks 72
4.3 BenefitsofUsing3-DModelsandEstablishingSubsurfaceGroundConditions 74
4.3.1 CostofGeotechnicalInvestigations 74
4.3.2 GeotechnicalBaselineReport 75
4.4 Processes,Codes,andGuidelinesforEstablishingSubsurfaceConditionsandManagingRisk 76
4.4.1 RiskReductionStrategiestoManageDeficientGroundInformation 76
4.4.2 InvestmentstoMitigateAgainstDeficientGroundInformation 77
4.4.3 CodeRequirements 77
4.5 ExamplesoftheUseof3-DGeologicalModelsforInfrastructureProjects 79
4.5.1 InvestigatingThree-DimensionalGeologicalModelingasaToolforConsultancy 80
OliverJ.N.DabsonandRossJ.Fitzgerald
4.5.2 Three-DimensionalGeologicalModelingforaNuclearPowerFacilityinAnglesey,Wales,UK,toEnhance
GroundInvestigationQualityandOptimizeValue 82
MatthewFree,BenGilson,JasonManning,andRichardHosker
4.5.3 Integrating3-DModelsWithinProjectWorkflowtoControlGeotechnicalRisk 84
AngelosGakis,PaulaCabrero,andDavidEntwisle
4.5.4 TheEconomicValueofDigitalGroundModelsforLinearRailInfrastructureAssetsintheUnitedKingdom 85
GerardMcArdle
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Contents vii
4.5.5 EmployinganIntegrated3-DGeologicalModelfortheReferenceDesignoftheSilvertownTunnel,East
London 86
JeromeChamfraySimonR.Miles,andGaryMorin
4.5.6 ANewDutchLawonSubsurfaceInformationtoEnableBetterSpatialPlanning 88
MartinR.H.EPeersmannandMichielJ.vanderMeulen
Acknowledgments 89
References 90
PartII BuildingandManagingModels 93
5 OverviewandHistoryof3-DModelingApproaches 95
AndrewJ.Stumpf,DonaldA.Keefer,andAlanKeithTurner
5.1 Introduction 95
5.2 HistoricalDevelopmentof3-DModeling 96
5.2.1 RepresentationoftheThirdDimension 96
5.2.2 ElectricalAnalogModels 99
5.2.3 TheAdoptionofDigitalMappingTechnologies 99
5.2.4 Evolutionof3-DMappingandModelingCollaborativeForums 100
5.3 TheMahometAquifer:AnExampleofEvolvingSubsurfaceModeling 101
5.3.1 EarlyModelingEfforts 103
5.3.2 Initial3-DGeologicalandHydrogeologicalEvaluations 104
5.3.3 RecentGeologicalandHydrogeologicalModels 105
5.4 Digital3-DGeologicalModelingApproachesDiscussedinThisBook 106
5.4.1 Stacked-SurfaceApproachtoModelCreation 106
5.4.2 ModelingBasedonCross-SectionsandBoreholes 108
(cid:2) 5.4.3 Three-DimensionalGriddedVoxelModels 108 (cid:2)
5.4.4 IntegratedRule-Based(Implicit)GeologicalModels 109
References 109
6 EffectiveandEfficientWorkflows 113
DonaldA.KeeferandJasonF.Thomason
6.1 Introduction 113
6.1.1 UnderstandingtheGeologicModelingProcess 113
6.1.2 DevelopingCustomWorkflows 114
6.2 OperationalConsiderations 114
6.2.1 UserRequirements 115
6.2.2 DefiningMappingObjectives 115
6.2.2.1 DelineationofModelDomain 115
6.2.2.2 DefinitionoftheGeneralGeologicFrameworkModel 115
6.2.2.3 DeterminationandRepresentationoftheDesiredModelAccuracy 115
6.2.2.4 ConsiderationofFormatsforFinalDeliverables 116
6.2.3 GeologicSettingandNaturalComplexity 116
6.2.4 ExistingDataAvailabilityandManagement 116
6.2.5 CollectionofNewData 117
6.2.6 StaffAvailabilityandExpertise 117
6.3 SelectionofModelingMethodsandSoftware 117
6.4 ProductsandDistribution 119
6.5 ModelMaintenanceandUpgrades 120
6.6 IllinoisStateGeologicalSurvey3-DModelingWorkflows 121
6.6.1 ProjectObjectives 122
6.6.2 ProjectSchedule 122
6.6.3 ProjectStaffingConsiderations 122
6.6.4 SoftwareSelection 122
6.6.5 DataAssessment 123
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6.6.6 ProjectDeliverables 124
6.6.7 Post-ProjectModelManagement 124
6.7 ModelingWorkflowSolutionsbyOtherOrganizations 125
6.7.1 UniversityofWaterloo,DepartmentofEarthandEnvironmentalSciences 126
6.7.2 DelawareGeologicalSurvey 127
6.7.3 OntarioGeologicalSurvey 128
6.7.4 GeologicalSurveyofDenmarkandGreenland 129
6.8 CreatingaCustomWorkflow 130
Acknowledgments 130
References 130
7 DataSourcesforBuildingGeologicalModels 133
AbigailK.Burt,PhillipSirles,andAlanKeithTurner
7.1 Introduction 133
7.2 DefiningandClassifyingData 133
7.2.1 DataVersusInformation 133
7.2.2 ClassifyingData 134
7.2.2.1 SpatialLocationandExtentUsingPoints,Lines,andPolygons 135
7.2.2.2 FrameworkVersusPropertyData 135
7.2.2.3 Elevation,Surficial,andSubsurfaceData 136
7.3 LegacyData 136
7.4 ElevationData 138
7.5 SurficialandSubsurfaceGeologicalData 139
7.5.1 GeologicalSurveyData 140
7.5.1.1 MapData 140
(cid:2) 7.5.1.2 Boreholes 144 (cid:2)
7.5.1.3 AnalyticalDatabases 147
7.5.1.4 ReportsandAcademicContributions 148
7.5.1.5 3-DModels 148
7.5.1.6 Accessibility 148
7.5.2 SoilData 149
7.5.3 GeotechnicalData 151
7.5.4 WaterWellData 153
7.5.5 PetroleumData 155
7.6 GeophysicalData 157
7.6.1 SeismicSurveyMethod 157
7.6.1.1 SeismicRefractionSurveys 157
7.6.1.2 SeismicReflectionSurveys 158
7.6.1.3 SurfaceWaveSurveys 159
7.6.2 ResistivitySurveyMethod 161
7.6.3 ElectromagneticSurveyMethod 163
7.6.3.1 TimeDomainElectromagneticSurveys(TDEM) 163
7.6.3.2 FrequencyDomainElectromagneticSurveys 164
7.6.3.3 AirborneElectromagneticSurveys 164
7.6.4 GravitySurveys 165
7.6.4.1 Ground-basedGravitySurveys 166
7.6.4.2 AirborneGravitySurveys 167
7.6.5 GroundPenetratingRadar 167
7.6.6 BoreholeGeophysics 170
7.6.6.1 BoreholeGeophysicalLogging 170
7.6.6.2 In-holeSeismicGeophysicalLogging 171
Acknowledgments 172
References 174
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