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Library of Congress Catalog Number:
ISBN: 978-1-4128-6538-8 (hardcover); 978-1-4128-6545-6 (paperback)
eBook: 978-1-4128-6473-2
Printed in the United States of America
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Phillips, David L. (Writer on Turkish politics), author.
Title: An uncertain ally : Turkey under Erdogan’s dictatorship / David
L. Phillips.
Description: New Brunswick, U.S.A. ; London U.K. : Transaction
Publishers, [2017] | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016055994 (print) | LCCN 2016057009 (ebook) |
ISBN 9781412865388 (hardcover) | ISBN 9781412865456 (pbk.) |
ISBN 9781412864732
Subjects: LCSH: Turkey--Politics and government--1980- | Erdofgan,
Recep Tayyip. | North Atlantic Treaty Organization--Turkey. | Turkey--
Foreign relations--1980-
Classification: LCC DR603 .P5 2017 (print) | LCC DR603 (ebook) |
DDC 956.104/12--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016055994
Contents
Introduction vii
Part I. Domestic Issues
1 Erdogan 3
2 Secularism 15
3 Human Rights 33
4 Corruption 45
5 The Kurdish Question 57
Part II. Regional Conflicts
6 The Iraq War 79
7 Zero Problems with Neighbors 89
8 The Syrian Quagmire 117
9 Terror Ties 135
Part III. Crackdown
10 Consolidation 153
11 Under Siege 165
12 Ending Exceptionalism 177
Acronyms 187
Glossary of Individuals 189
About the Author 201
Index 203
Introduction
The Republic of Turkey was forged in the crucible of conflict. As the
Ottoman Empire collapsed at the end of the First World War, millions
fled their homes in the Balkans, Caucasus, and Mesopotamia. The 1920
Treaty of Sèvres reduced Turkey to a rump state, encompassing merely
a third of its territory under the Ottomans.
Many Turks experience what is called the “Sèvres Syndrome.” They
believe that the world is conspiring to diminish Turkey and divide the
country. Turks developed a siege mentality. They feel beset by threats
both real and imagined. Enemies lurk within and without.
While modernization propelled the West, Turkey was left behind.
Mustafa Kemal Ataturk (“the father of all Turks”) emerged during this
moment of self-doubt. Ataturk launched the War of Independence,
appealing to the wounded pride of Turks. The Great Powers were weary
of fighting and did not oppose Ataturk’s ambitions. The 1923 Treaty of
Lausanne nullified Sèvres, restoring control of many Ottoman lands
to Turkey. “Kemalism” enshrined Ataturk’s Republican People’s Party
(CHP) as guardian of the state and secular rule.
After Ataturk’s death in 1938, the CHP was taken over by corrupt and
self-interested politicians. The so-called deep state—a web of security
services, politicians, bureaucrats, and criminal gangs—emerged as a
powerful shadow force. With the National Intelligence Agency (MIT)
monitoring oppositionists, the Turkish General Staff (TGS) was the
ultimate arbiter and the deep state its enforcer.
Turkey joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in
1952. It emerged as an indispensable ally of the United States during
the Cold War. Turkey was also an important strategic partner. As a
secular, pro-Western democracy, it had a moderating influence on
Muslims in Europe and served as a bridge to Muslim majority countries
in Central Asia.
In the Cold War and decolonization context, Turkey like many coun-
tries was subject to leftist influence. The military conducted a coup in
vii
An Uncertain Ally
1980, aimed at suppressing ideological divisions and violence. Turkey
adopted a military constitution in 1982. The CHP ruled with an iron
fist. Ethnic identity was denied. Sectarianism suppressed.
Despite the paramount position of secular institutions, Kemalism
as a state ideology could not deny the pious character of many Turks.
Political parties emerged, inspired by Islamist values. The Welfare
Party (Refah Partisi) tried to operate stealthily, skirting secular rules
in the constitution. However, the secular establishment viewed it as
threat. The Constitutional Court banned the Welfare Party in 1997 for
undermining secular principles.
Ethnic issues also polarized society. Turkey tried to deny the exis-
tence of Kurds, who comprise about 20 percent of the total population.
They were called “mountain Turks.” Kurdish villages were given Turkish
names. Kurdish newborns were forced to accept Turkish names. Laws
were adopted allowing land seizure and the deportation of Kurds on
security grounds. The Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK), a Marxist-
Leninist group, emerged as the voice of Kurds, demanding political and
cultural rights. The PKK was initially a separatist organization, which
sought independence for “greater Kurdistan,” encompassing Kurdish
territories in Turkey, Syria, Iraq, and Iran. Beginning in the 1980s, a civil
war between the Turkish Armed Forces (TSK) and the PKK claimed
approximately forty thousand lives.
Turkey was increasingly divided. Kurds chafed under Turkish domi-
nation. Leftists opposed the military establishment. Muslims opposed
secularists. Western-oriented Turks sought Euro-Atlantic integration,
while others resented the West. Turks do not feel welcome in Europe.
Nor are Turks a part of the Arab world. From the East, Turkey looks
like a Western country. From the West, Turkey is decidedly Oriental.
Turkey’s President Recep Tayyip Erdogan and his Justice and
Development Party (AKP) won national elections in 2002. Erdogan
is a skillful politician who tapped feelings of inadequacy, alienation,
and frustration. He appealed to the pride of Turks, asserting Turkish
nationalism. Erdogan presented himself as a man of the people and a
pro-Western modern Muslim.
The United States was initially wary of Erdogan’s pious personality.
However, Erdogan sent all the right signals. He reaffirmed Turkey’s
commitment to joining the European Union (EU). He pledged coop-
eration with international mediators on Cyprus. Erdogan rescued
Turkey’s economy, which was reeling from unemployment and dou-
ble-digit inflation. He built infrastructure, raised living standards, and
viii
Introduction
expanded the delivery of basic services, such as water and electricity.
He used Turkey’s EU candidacy to justify reforms, bringing Turkey’s
military and bureaucratic establishment to heel. Under Erdogan,
Turkey became a world power and a leading country in the G-20. He
pursued an independent path, demanding international respect. The
United States welcomed Erdogan’s constructive role in foreign affairs
and commitment to democracy.
Erdogan also had a positive approach to Turkey’s conflict with the
PKK. He initiated a political dialogue that led to a ceasefire in 2003.
Erdogan was acknowledged for his efforts to end the Kurdish conflict.
He was celebrated in capitals the world over and nominated for the
Nobel Peace Prize. Many Turks heralded his accomplishments, putting
him on a par with Ataturk. Turkish voters showed their appreciation
for Erdogan’s leadership by giving the AKP a mandate in four national
elections—2002, 2007, 2011, and 2015.
However, the AKP’s electoral success did not strengthen Turkish
democracy. Erdogan became increasingly authoritarian and Islamist.
He developed a Hobbesian view of the world. According to Erdogan,
Turkey was threatened on all fronts by “terrorists.” He took special
umbrage at Fethullah Gulen, his former friend and ally, who lived in
exile in the Poconos. Erdogan accused the Gulen movement of estab-
lishing a state within the state to undermine the AKP.
Erdogan is systematic assault on freedom of expression cowed
Turkey’s once-vibrant civil society and independent media. The Press
Freedom Index of Reporters Without Borders ranked Turkey 151
out of 180 countries in 2016. Hundreds of journalists were jailed for
“insulting Turkishness” and nearly two thousand detained for “insulting
the president.” Peaceful protesters in Gezi Park were victims of police
brutality, which spread to sixty cities across the country.
Corruption was rampant. A corruption scandal in 2013 touched
Erdogan, his son Bilal, and members of the inner circle. Wiretaps
disclosed sordid self-enrichment scandals, forcing four cabinet mem-
bers to resign. Erdogan accused Gulen of masterminding the leaks to
embarrass him and overthrow the government.
Erdogan espoused a “zero problems with neighbors” policy.
Yet Turkey found itself in conflict with every neighbor. Turkish F-16s
downed a Russian war plane near the Turkish-Syrian border on
November 24, 2015. The incident precipitated a major crisis in bilateral
relations between Turkey and Russia. Turkey’s role in Syria’s civil war
was a lightning rod for controversy with Russia, Iran, and the United
ix
