Table Of ContentAN
OUTLINEO F PHILOSOPHY
BY
BERTRANRDU SSELL
LONDON
GEORGEA LLEN& U:t\"WINL TD
MUSEUMS TREET
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CONTENTS
CHAP.
I.P HILOSOPHDIOCU BTS •
PART I
MAN FROM WITHOUT
Il.M AN ANDH ISE NVIROMNENT 19
III.T HE PROCF.SS OF LEARNINGI N ANIMALS AND
INFANTS 32
IV.L ANGUAGE 46
V. PERCEPl'IOOBNJ ECTIVREELGYA RDED 61
VI.M EMORYO BJECTIVREELGYA RDED 73
VII.I NFERENCAES A HABIT Ba
VIII.KN OWLEDGEB EHAVIOURISTICCOANLSLIYD ERED 91
PART II
THE PHYSICAL WORLD
IX. THB STRUCTUREO FT HEA TOM 103
X. RELATIVITY II3
XI. CAUSAL LAIWNSP HYSICS 120
XII.P HYSICASN DP ERCEPTION 129
XIII.P HYSICAALN DP ERCEPTUSAPLA CE 143
XIV. PERCEPTIAONND P HYSICACLA USAL LAWS 150
XV. THE NATUREO FO URK NOWLEDGOEF PHYSICS 157
PART III
MAN FROM WITHIN
XVI. SELF-OBSERVIAOTN
XVII.I MAGF.S .
v
vi AN OUTLINE OF PHILOSOPHY
CHAP. PAGE
XVIII.I MAGINATIOANN D MEMORY • 195
XIX. THE INTROSPECTIAVEN ALYSIOSF PERCEPTION 209
XX. CONSCIOUSNESS? 218
XXL EMOTION,D ESIREA,N D WILL 226
XXII.E THICS • 233
PART IV
THE UNIVERSE
XXIll.S OME GHEATP HILOSOPHIOEFS THE PAST 247
XXIV. TRUTH AND FALSEHOOD 265
XXV. THE VALIDITOYF INFERECNE 277
XXVI. EVENTSM,A TTER,A ND i\1IND 287
XXVII. MAN'SP LACEI N THE UNIVERSE 303
INDEX 313
CHAPTER I
PHILOSOPHDIOCUB TS
PERHAPiSt m ightb e expecttehda It shoulbde giwni tha
definitoifo' n' philosobpuhtyr,"i ,g htolrwy r onglIy d,o n ot
propotsoed os o.T hed efinitoifo" np hilpohsoy"w ilvla ry
accordtiont gh ep hilosowpeha yd opt; alwle c tahnsa atyt o
begiwni tihs t hatth eraer ec ertapirno blemwsh,i cche rtain
peoplfien di nteregs,at nidnw hicdho n ota,t l eaasttp resent,
belontgoa nyo ft hes pecisacli enceTsh.e se probalreeam lsl
sucahs t or aidsoeu btcso ncernwihnagtc ommonlpya ssfeosr
knowledgaen;di ft hed oubtasr et ob ea nsweriedtc, a no nly
beb ym eanso fa specisatlu dtyo,w hicwhe g ivteh en ame
"philosophy". Tthheefir resfstot reeip n d efinin"gp hilo
sophyi"st hei ndicaotfit ohne sper obleamnsd d oubtwsh,i ch
isa lstoh efi rsstt eipn t hea ctusatlu doyfp hilosopThhye.r e
ares omea mongt het raditipornoabll eomfsp hilosotphhayt
don ots eemt om et ol entdh emseltvoie nst elletcrteuaatlm ent,
becautshee tyr anscoeunrd cognpiotwievress ;u cph roblems
I shalnlo td eawl ith.T herea reo therhso,w eveasr ,t o
whiche,v enif a finals olutiiosnn o tp ossiabtlpe r eseynett,
muchc anb ed onet os how tdhier ectiinwo hni cah s olution
ist ob es oughatn,d t hek inodfs olutitohnamt a yi nt ime
prove possible.
Philosoaprhiys ferso ma nu nusuaolblsyt inate attot empt
arrivaetr eakln owledgWeh.a tp assefso rk nowledigne
ordinalirfey s ufferfsr omt hredee fectisti: sc ocksuvraeg,u e,
ands elf-contradTihcetfi orrsyst.t etpo wardpsh ilosophy
consiisntb se cominagw aroef t hesdee fecntost,i no rdetro
rescto ntewnitt ah l azsyc epticbiustim n,o rdetro s ubstitute
2 AN OUTLINEO F PHILOSOPHY
ana mendekdi ndo fkn owledgweh ichs halble tentative,
precisaen,d s elf-consiTshteerneti .s o fc oursaen other
qualiwthyi chw e wisho urk nowledtgoep ossensasm,e ly,
comprehensivewnee wsiss:ht hea reoaf o urk nowledtgoe
bea s> vidaesp ossiblBeu.tt hiiss t heb usineosfss c ience
rathetrh ano fp hilosopAh ym.a n doesn otn ecessarily
becomaeb ettpehri losotphhreoru kgnho winmgo res cientific
factsi;t i sp rincipalndem se thodasn dg enercaoln ceptions
thath e shoullde arfnr oms cienicfep hilosoipshwy h at
interehsitms. T he philosophweorr'kis s s,o t os peaka,t
thes econrde movfer omc rudfea ctS.c ientcrei teosc ollect
facts ibnutnod lebsy m eanso fs cientliafiwcs ; tlhaewsse,
rathetrh ant heo riginfaalc tasr,e t her awm aterioafl
philosopPhhyi.l osopihnyv olvae csr iticoifss mc inetific
knowledgneo,tf roma poinotf v iewu ltimatdeilffye rent
fromt haotf s cienbcuet,fr om ap oinotfv iewl escso ncerned
withd etaialnsdm orec oncernewdi tht heh armonoyf t he
wholbeo dyo fs pecisacli ences.
The special sciheanvceae lsgl r own up by theu seo f
notiodnesr ivfreodm commons ensseu,c ahs t hinagnsd t heir
qualitsipeasc,e t, imea,n dc ausatioSnc.i enciet sehlafs
shownt hanto neo ft hesceo mmon-sennsoet iownisl qlu ite
servef ort hee xplanatoifto hne w orldb;u ti ti sh ardltyh e
provinocfea nys pecisacli entcoeu ndertatkheen ecessary
reconstruocftfu inodna mentalTsh.i sm ustb et heb usiness
ofp hilosophIy w.a ntt os ayt,o b egiwni tht,h aIt b elieve
itt ob ea busineosfvs e rgyr eaitm portancIe b.e lietvhea t
thep hilosopheircraolri snc ommon-senbseel ienfosto nly
producceo nfusini osnc ienbcuet,a lsdoo h armi ne thiacnsd
politiicnss o,c iialn stitutainodin nst ,h ec onducotfe very
dayl ife.I tw ilble n op arotf m y busineisnst ,h ivso lume,
top oinotu tt hesper actiecffaelc tosf baa dp hilosopmhyy :
businewsislb le p ureliyn tleelctuaBlu.ti fI am rightth,e
intelleacdtvueanlt uwrheisc hl ibee forues h avee ffectisn
manyd irectiwohnisc hs eema,t fi rssti ghqtu,i tree mote
from ourt heme.T hee ffecotfo urp assiuonpso no ur beliefs
forms a favouristueb jeocftm odemp sychologbiusttts h;e
converesffee ctth,a otf o urb elieufsp ono urp assioanlss,o
PHILOSOPHICD OUBTS 3
existtsh,o ugihti sn ots ucha sa no lda-sfhioniendt ellec
tualpissytc holwooguyl hda vseu pposeAdl.t houIgs hh all
notd iscuistsw, e s hadllow eltlo b eairt i nm indin, order
tor ealitshea to urd iscussmiaoyn sh aveb earinugpso n
mattelrysi nogu tsitdhees pheroefp urien tellect.
I mentionae mdo menta got hredee fecitnsc ommon
belienfasm,e lyt,h at tahreecy ocksuvraeg,u ea,n ds elf
contradictIotir syth .e busineosfps h ilosotpohc yo rrect
thesdee fectssof ara si tc an, witthhoruotw ionvge krn ow
ledgael togethTeor b.e a goodp hilosopah mearn,m ust
havae strondge sitroek nowc,o mbinweidt ghr eacta ution
inb elievtihnaght e knows;h e musta lshoa vel ogical
acumena ndt heh abiotf e xactth inkinAgl.lt hesoef,
coursaer,ea matteorfd egreeV.a gueneisnsp ,a rticular,
belongisn,s omed egreteo,a lhlu mant hinkinwge; c an
diminiistih n definitbeultwy e,c ann evearb oliistwh h olly.
Philosoaphcyc,o rdinigsal cyo,n tinuaicntgi vniottys ,o me
thinign w hicwhe can achfiineavplee rfectioonnc feo ra ll.
Int hirse spepchti,l osohpahssy u fferfreodm itass sociation
witht heologTyh.e ologidcoaglm asa refi xeda,n da re
regardbeyd t heo rthodaosxi ncapaobfli em provement.
Philosophhaevretso oo ftetnr ietdop rodusciem ilafirnlayl
systemtsh:e yh aven otb eenc ontewnitt ht heg radual
approximattihoasntas t ismfieendo fs ciencIen.t hitsh ey
seemt om e toh aveb een mistaPkheinl.o sosphhoyu lbde
piecemaenadlp rovisiloinkaselc iencfien;a tlr utbhe longs
toh eavenno,tt ot hiwso rld.
Thet hredee fecwthsi chI havem entionaerdei nter
connectaenddb, yb ecomianwga roef a nyo new e mayb e
ledt or ecogntihseoe t her tIww oi.l ill lustarltalht ree bey
a fewe xamples.
Letu st akfier stth eb elefiin commono bjecstusc,ha s
tablaensd c haiarnsd t reesW.e alfle eqlu itseu raeb out
thesieno rdinalriyfa en,dy eto urr easofnosrc onfidenacree
realvleyr iyn adequaNtaei.v ceo mmons ensseu pposes that
theayr ew hatth eayp petarob eb,u tt haitsi mpossible, since
theydo nota ppeaerx actallyi kteoa nyt wos imultaneous
observeartsl ;e asitti, si mpossiifb tlheeo bjeisc ta single
4 AN OUTLINE OF PHILOSOPHY
thintgh,es amef oral olb serverIsf.w ea reg ointgo a dmit
thatth eo bjeicsnt o tw hatw es eew,e c ann ol onrgf eeetlh e
same assutrhaanttch ee ries a n objectth;i iss t hefi rst
intrusoifod no ubt. Howwevee srh,a ll spreeedciolvye r
from thisse -tbacka,n ds ay tohfac to ursteh eo bjecis t
"reallwyh"a tp hysiscasy ist i s.N1o w physiscasy tsh at
a tabloer a chaiirs" reallayn"i ncredivbalsyt system of
electraonndps r otoinnsr apimdo tiowni,t ehm ptsyp acien
betweenT.h isi sa lvle rwye llB.u tt hep hysicliisktteh, e
ordinamrya n,i sd ependeunpto nh isse nsfeostr h e existence
oft hep hysiwcoarll dI.f y oug ou p toh ims olemnalnyd
say",W oulydo ub es ok inads t ot elmle ,a sa p hysicwihsatt,
ac hair riesa?ly"lo yuw ilgle atl earnaends werB.u ti fy ou
sayw,i thopurte ambl'e'I,ts h erae c haitrh ereh?e"wi ll
say",O fc ourtshe eries ;c an'yto us eei t?"T o this you
oughtto r epliynt hen egativYeo.uo ughtto s ay, "IN o,
seec ertapiant choefsc oloubru,tI don'ste ea nye lectrons
orp rotonasn,dy out elmle thatth eya rew hata chair
consiosft"s. H e mayr eply":Y esb,u ta largneu mbeorf
electraonndsp rotocnlso steo gethleoro k lai pkaet cohf
colour'"'.W hadtoy oum eanb y' loolki ke'y?o"uw iltlh en
ask.H e isr eadwyi than answerH.e meanst halti ght
wavess tarfrto m thee lectroannsd p roton(so rm,o re
probabalrye,r eflectbeyd t hemf roma sourcoef l ight),
reacthh ee yeh,a vea serioefse ffectusp ont her odasn d
conetsh,e o ptince rve, tahnebd r aiann,d fi nalplryo duac e
sensatiBount.h eh asn evesre eann eyeo ra no ptince rve
ora braiann,y m oret hahne h ass eean c haihre:h aso nly
seepna tchoefsc olowuhri chh,e s aysa,r ew hate ye"sl ook
like"T.h ati st os ayh,e t hintkhsa tth es ensatyioouhn a ve
when( asy out hinyko)u s eea c haihra,sa serioefsc auses,
physicaanldp sychooglicablu,ta llo ft hemo,n hiso wn
showinlgi,ee ssentiaanldlf yo revoeurt siedxep erience.
Nevertehseshl,e p retentdobs a shei ss cienucpeo no bserva-
1 I am nott hinknigh ereo ft he elemenpthayrsyi tcobs e fo und in
a schootle xt-bookI; a m thinkionfgm odern theorepthiycsailcm so,r e
particulaarsrl ye gartdhses tructuorefa tomsa,s t ow hichI s halhla v<
moreto say lina tecrha pters.
PHILOSOPHICD OUBTS 5
tionO.b vioustlhye rise h erea problefmo rt hel ogician,
a problebme longinnogtt op hysics,t oqb uuitt aen other
kind sotfu dyT.h isi sa firsetx ampoleft hew ayi n which
thep ursuoifpt r ecisdieosnt rcoeyrst ainty.
Thep hysicbieslti etvheasht e infehrisse lectraonnds
protofrnosm whath ep erceivBeust.t hei nfereinsnc eev er
clearsleyfot rthi na logical acnhdai,if in t,w erei,tm ight
notl oosku fficienptllayu sitbolw ea rramnutc hc onfidence.
Ina ctuafla ctth,e w holdee velopmfernotmc ommon-sense
objecttose lectraonndsp rotonhass b eeng overnebdy
certabienl iesfesl,d ocmo nsciobuust,e xistining every
naturmaaln . Theseb elieafrsen otu nalterabbultte h,e y
growa ndd evleopl ikae t reeW.e starbytt hinkitnhgaa t
chairi sa si ta ppeatrobs e,a ndi ss titlhle rweh enw ea ren ot
lookinBgu.t w e find,b ya little retflheacttth ieostnew, o
belieafsr ei ncompatiIbflt eh.ec haiirst op ersiisntd e
pendenotflb ye ings eebny u s,i tm ustb es omething other
thant hep atcohf c olowuer seeb,e cautshei iss fountdo
depend ucpoonndi iotnesx tranetootu hsec haisru,c ahs h ow
thel igfahltl wsh,e thweer a rew earibnlgu sep ectacalneds ,
soo n. Thisf orctehsem ano fs cientcore e gatrhde " real"
chaiarst hec aus(eo ra ni ndispenpsaarbotlf et hec ausoef)
ours ensatiwohnesnw e seet hec hairT.h usw e arec om
mittetdoc ausataisoa nn a priboerliiw eift howuhti cwhe
shoulhda ven or easofonr suppostihnagtt h erise a "real"
chair ata llAl.s o,f ort hes akoef p ermanenwceeb rinign
then otioofns ubstantchee": r ealc"h aiisr a s ubstanocre ,
collecotfis ounb stanpcoesss,e sosfep de rmanenacnedt he
powert oc aussee nsatioTnhsi.sm etaphysbieclailhe afs
operatmeodr,eo rl esusn conscioiunst lhyei, n ferefrnocme
senastiotnose lectraonndps r otonTsh.e p hilosompuhsetr
drag sbueclhi ienftsto h el igohftd aya,n ds eew hethtehre y
stislulr vivOef.t eint wbiel lf oundt hatt heyd ieo n
exposure.
Letu sn ow taukpea nothpeori ntT.h ee videnfcoera
physilcaawlo, r f or anys cientliafiwac,l wayisn volbvoetsh
memorya ndt estimonWye. h avet or elbyo thu ponw hat
wer emembetorh avoeb servoendf o rmeorc casiaonndso ,n
6 AN OUTLINE OF PHILOSOPHY
what otshaeytr hse y hoabvsee rveIdn.t hev erbye ginnings
ofs cienictme a,y h avbee enp ossisbolmee timteods i spense
witthe stimobnuytv; e rsyo oenv ersyc ientiinfivce stigation
begatno b eb uilutp onp reviouasslcye rtariesnueldt asn,d
thutso d epenudp onw hato thehrasd r ecordeIdn.f act,
withotuhte c orroboraotfti eosnt imowne ys hould hardly
haveh ad much confiind etnhceee x isteonfcp eh ysical
objectSso.m etimpese oplseu ffefrro m hallucinatthiaotn s,
ist os ayt,h etyh intkh ey perceiveo bpjheycbstuistc, a la re
notc onfirmeidnt hibse libeyft het estimoofno yt hersI.n
suchc asewse, d ecidteh atth eya rem istakeInt.i st he
similabreitwteye nt hep erceptioofdn isff erepneto ple in
similsairt uattihoanmtsa keuss f eeclo ndfienotf t hee xternal
causatoifoo nu rp erceptibountsfo ;r this, whantaeivveer
beliewfes m ighhta veh ad inp hysicoablj ecwtosu lhda ve
beend issipaltoendga go.T husm emorya nd testimony
are essenttois acli encNee.v ertheelaecsohsf ,t hesieso pen
toc riticbiyst mh es ceptiEcv.e nif we succeemdo,r eo r
lessin, meetihnig sc riticwies smh,a lilfw, e arer ational,
bel efwti tahl escso mplectoen fideninc oeu ro rigibnealli efs
thawne h adb eforeO.n cem orew,e s hablelc omlee scso ck
suraes w eb ecommeo rea ccurate.
Bothm emory andt estimolneya uds i nttoh es phere of
psycholoIgs yh.a nlolt a tt hisst agdei scuss beeiytohnedr
thep oinattw hiciht i sc leatrh atth eraer eg enuipnhei lo
sophipcraolb letmobs e s olvedIs. h ablelg iwni tmhe mory.
Memoryi sa w ordw hich ahv aasr ieotfmy e aningTsh.e
kindt hata mI c oncernweidt aht t hem omenti st her ecol
lectioonfp asotc currencTehsi.si ss on otoriofuaslllyi ble
thaetv ereyx perimemnatkeers r eac oorfdt her esuolfth is
experimaetnt th ee arlipeossts imbolmee nt:he c onsiders
thei nferefrnocme wr ittewno rdtso p asetv ents llieksesl y
tob em istaktehna nt hed irect bwehliicehcf osn stitute
memory.B uts omet imet,h uoghp erhaposn lya ewf
secondmsu,s te lapsbee tweent heo bservatiaonnd the
makinogf t her ecorudn,l estsh er ecoridss ofr agmentary
thamte moryi sn eedetdo i nterpirte.Tt h usw e do not
escapfreo m then eedo ft rustmienmgo ryt os omed egree,
