Table Of ContentPUTNAM'S HISTORY OF AIRCRAFT
PUTNAM'S HISTORY OF AIRCRAFT
Aircraft of the
Second World War
The Developm.ent of the
Warplane 1939-45
Series Editor: Philip Jarrett
II I
- I
nIlep<1gephotograph:l'SAAF/>-5J.llltslaltgsOlt line resAirForceI,IIJH Taylor}
Aircraft oftire SecondlIorld liar
Tire Development oflirelIarpla"e 1939-45
Contents
Ser-ies Editor:PhilipJarrett XorrnanFriedman AndrewXahum
Philipjarrettisafreelance author.editor.sub NormanFriedmanworks asanaval analystat AndrewXahurnhasbeenfascinatedby
editorand consultantspecialisinginaviation. theHudsonlnsututeinXewYorkandlectures engines eversince hismotherboughthima
Hebegan writingonaviation historyin 1967. aroundtheworld.Describedas'America's noisyItalianmodel aircraftmotor asayoung
andin 1971becameassistanteditorof leadingnavalwriter" heistheauthorofover boy.Hehaswritten widelyonautomotive
Aerospace,theRoyalAeronauticalSociety's 20books andnumerousarticlesincluding historyandhisbooks include TI't'RotaryAero
newspaper.HewasassistanteditorofAeroplane BritishCarrierAt'i.,Jlio".lr:'mhiplksig".;"J E"gine,AlecIssieonis.and.asco-author.The
Jlomh{vfrom 1973to 1980.and production Dcvelotnncntand SlltulR.;JiJr.Hisupdated Rolls-RoyceCrecv.HeisCuratorof
editorofHighlInternationalfrom 198010 editionofthehighlyacclaimed S/ltvllmliwu Aeronauticsatthe Science.\tuseum.London.
1989. Guide10 U'QrlJXlltu/lreupoms:.".flelll.fhas
.\tJF Bowyer recentlybeenpublished. Introduction 7
MichaelBowyer'sinterest inaviationwas
awoken when the hugeKID1airshippassed johnGulley DrAlfredPrice Axis Aircraft at the Outbreak ofWar II
lowoverhead.Bythe mid-1930s hewas johnGollcytrainedinCanadaonTiger.\Iorhs DrAlfredPriceservedasanaircrewofficerin
recordingandsoonphotographingaircraft.and and Harvards,thencompletedanAFUcourse the RAF.specialising inelectronicwarfareand
throughout thehostilitieshecompiledcopious on.\tastersinthe UK beforeconvertingto airfightingtactics.UponleavingtheServicein 2 Allied Aircraft Development in the EarlyWarYears 33
recordsoftheeventsfromaringsidescat.After HurricanesandTyphoons.During19·0--45he 197-1hebecameafull-timeaviationwriter.and
servingintheRAF hebecamealeadingavi flewwith 245Squadron.andthenbecamea isthe authororco-authorof41hooks.includ
ation historian. journalistandauthor.combin flyinginstructor.HisbooksincludeAircrm: inginstrumentsofD.Jrk,,~.fS.Battleof Britain:the 3 Fighter Development, lvlid-1941 to Mid-I945 59
ingtheseactivitieswith anacademiccareer. C"li",i,eJ.thestoryofthe Commonwealth Air Hardest0..),-,and77,eSpilfirrStory.Heholdsa
TrainingPlan. HistoryPhD fromLoughhoroughUniversity
Captain EricBrown andisaFellowoftheRoyallIistoricalSociety. 4 The Bomber Revolution 91
CaptainEricBrown.the fleetAirArm'smost PatrickHassell
decorated pilot,hadathirty-one-yearcareerin Patrick Hassell.anacrodynamicist,worked for
theRoyalNavy, Heservedastest pilot from HandleyPage.BAC.Douglasand Saab.After 5 Airrnobility:Aircraft in Support of Ground Forces 127
19.t2.eventuallybeingappointedChiefNaval twenty-fiveyears inindustryheleft Dowty
"lestPilotatRAEFarnboroughand command Propellersin 1994 toconcentrateonresearch Elfun;:IP Rees
ingtheEnemyAircraft Flight.thellighSfX'Cd ingaviationhistory.particularlyintheareasof Elfanap Rceshasbeeninvolvedwith heli 6 Naval Aircraft in the Second WorldWar 149
"lightandtheAerodynamicsFlight.Hecon aeronauticaltechnology.airtransport.and the coptersformorethanthirtyyears.owningand
tinuedtest flyingafterthewar.amassinga politicalcontrolofaviationdevelopment. publishingthe newsjournalsHdu"pltT
world recordtotalof-187basicaircrafttypes Internationaland HetidataS£u'sand. from 7 The Helicopter's First War 177
beforeretirement. PeterHearn 1969.buildingup auniquecollectionofhis
GroupCaptainPeter Hearn.AFC. served30 toric rororcraftwhichformedthe nucleusof
RWallaceClarke years asan RAF ParachutejumpingInstructor. today'sInternationalHelicopter.\tuseum,lle 8 Armament Diversifies 193
R'X'allaceClarkehaswritten widelyonaircraft trainingandservingwith Airborneforcesand alsorepresentsthehelicopterindustryon
armament forspecialistioumals,and histwo theSAS.He istheauthorofsevenbookson severalnationalandinternational bodies,and
authoritativevolumesonBrinshAircraft aviationtopicsincluding TheSky H'ople.his atweekendsflieshisownvintagehelicopterto 9 TheWell-equippedWarplane 221
Ann.;11tem.publishedin 1993and 199.t.were internationallyacclaimed historyofparachut relax andmaintaincurrency.
widelyacclaimed.Heisalsothe UKrepresent ing.Heisalsoanovelist,apublished poet and
ativeofthe-I92ndGroupAssociation.and has ateacherofcreativewriting. 10 Propulsion 251
producedanaccountofthegroup'ssecret
Second\X'orld\t'aroperations, E R Hooton DerekWood
ERHooton.adefencewriter,haswritten Derek\X'Olldwas foundereditor/publisherof 11 Testing and Ferrying 267
Les Coombes numerousarticles forinternationalpublication. J.J"~sDtfi.."aU·;:ek{\,.Hehasbeenanaviation
AfterserviceintheRAF from 193946Les Heproducesnavalreferencepublicationsfor anddefencewriterforover.t5years.andwas
Coombes becamearesearcherandwriteron jane'sInformationGroup.and haswritten theLondoneditorof Interaviugroupofpubli 12 Training: aVital Command 285
avionicsand ergonomics.Hespecialisesinthe hooksonthe ChineseCivilWar, theTanker cations from 1953to 1986andairccrrespon
historyofairforcetechnologyand inthede Warandthe Luftwaffefrom 1918to 1940.He dent forvarious newspapersfrom 19611(1
signand historyofthe aircraftcockpit.Heis iscurrentlycompletinganotherhookon the 1986.Hishooks include 771£S.;rrr.,",Jfurgi'". Index 299
theauthorof 111£AircraftCockpirand The LuftwaffeforArms&ArmourPress,takingthe ProjectCancelled.ToJrgt.'l!:"'gkmJandAllurk
Figh,ingCockpil 1914-2010. storyto 19.t-l. trlimillgRfJ.
PutnamAeronauticalBoob 1997
Allrightsreserved.~opartofthisbookmaybereproduced ortransmittedinanyformwithoutpriorwritten permission from the publisher.
[Bibliographies are included at the end ofeach chapter]
FirstpublishedinGreat Britainin 1997 byPutnamAeronauticalBooks
PutnamAeronautical Books is
adivision ofChrysalisBooks pic
8 BlenheimCourt
BreweryRoad
London l':7 91'0"):'
www.pumamaeronautical.com
Amemberofthe Chrysalis Grouppic
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ACIPcataloguerecordfor thisbookisavailablefrom the British Library.
LibraryofCongressCatalonging-in-Publication Data:Acatalogre-cord forthis bookisavailable onre-quest.
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PrintedandboundinSpain
Introduction
Philip Jarrett
Theyears 1939-45 sawrapid and unprecedented devel mechanical or operational shortcomings to be pin
opment in allspheres of aviation,as the warring nations pointed and resolved.
vied to gain a technological edge over their opponents Japan's proving ground was the conflict with Russia
andwinmastery oftheskies,and therebysecureultimate in 1939, where the inadequacies of its aircraft became
victory. Designers, engineers and scientists in industry disastrouslyevident.Theproblemsin thiscasewere that
and in research institutions laboured to improve the technologically modern aircraft were being built to out
aeroplane and enhance its capabilities and equipment. moded requirements, and the conservatism of military
By the end of the Second World War enormous traditionalistsinhibited the development ofmodern tac
strides had been made, not only in weaponry and de tical philosophies.
structive power, but in allof the essential technologies Derek Wood's survey of the development of Allied
that would revolutioniseairtransportin theyearsahead. aircraft in the early war years spotlights the manner in
For all its grim horror, the war accelerated the aero which Germany's neighbours left the modernisation of
plane's development as nothing else could have done. their air arms too late,some adhering to the naivebelief
While it isundeniably true that much wartime research that theirneutralitywould berespected,andotherstrust
and development work concentrated on what might be inginstaticdefencesor outmoded tacticalconcepts.The
termed the destructive arts,equalor greater effort was failure of the European aviation industry to meet the
devoted to the saving oflivesand improving the perfor sudden and overwhelming demand for modern combat
mance, reliability and ergonomics of the complex ma aircraft resulted in the USA's manufacturers receiving
chine that theaeroplane wasbecoming. orders for a variety of types.This had the fortuitousef
Supercharging enhanced thealtitude performanceof fects of bringing about an expansion of the American
the piston engine, radar helped the pilot find hisway at companies' production facilitiesand ofenablingthem to
night and locateother aircraft, new systems made flying assess their products'performance inoperationalservice
safer and more comfortable for aircrew,and theadvent and introduce improvements before the USA actually
of the jet engine heralded a new era in the conquest of enteredthewar.Insomeinstances,however,thishadun
the skies, offering hitherto undreamed-of speeds just as fortunate results for the customer nations.Those who
the piston engined, propeller-driven aeroplane was orderedtheBellAiracobra,BrewsterBuffaloand Curtiss
reaching the limitsofitsdevelopment. Hawk 75A,forexample,found to theirdismay that their
In these pagesleading aviation writers present an au investments had been wasted,and that their brand new
thoritativeaccount ofthis dramatic era in the historyof fighters were no match for the Luftwaffe's Bf 109s.
aviation technology,To set the scene, E.R.Hooton sur Tragically,the need wasso desperate that some of these
veys the air arms of the Axis forces at the outbreak of aircraftwere then put to work in Indiaand the Far East,
hostilities in 1939, examining their equipment and the where they proved equally vulnerable to theirJapanese
political, military,economical and technological factors counterparts.
or philosophies that had shaped them and either fur However, there were great success stories. Out
thered or frustrated their development. It was not nu standing examples were the North American Mustang
mericalstrengththat madeGermany'sairforce themost and 1\litchell, Lockheed Hudson, Douglas Boston,
powerful,asinthissenseitwasdwarfed bytheSovietAir Boeing 13-17 and Consolidated Liberator, all of which
Force.Thesecretofitsstrengthlayinthemodern design saw widespread usc after initial teething troubles were
of the vast majority of its aircraft, Italy's Regia resolved,
Aeronautica, although regarded as second only to the Britain's industry, too, had its share of failures and
German air force, suffered as a result of an under successes.The FaireyBattle and\'\'estlandWhirlwinddid
capitalised aircraft industry, an apparent reluctance to not come up to expectations, but others, such as the
abandonbiplanefighters,alackofsuitablypowerfulaero AHo .\lanchester and Hawker Typhoon, were trans
engines and theabsence ofadoctrineofairpower.Both formed from problem children into mature and potent
arms,however,had used the Spanish Civil\Varasa test warriors.Development potentialisthe hallmark ofgreat
ing ground for their new front-line aircraft, allowing design,and the aircraft lacking in this attribute, such as
both pilots and ground crew to become familiar with the Hurricaneand Stirling,flewbrieflyinto thespotlight
them under combat conditions, and enabling initial and then receded, Those having it in abundance were
7
AIRCRAFT OF THE SECO:-;n \X'ORLD \\'AR I:-;TRo n UCTIO:-;
theSpitfireand ,\Iosquito,thelatter alsobeing endowed regarded their respective types, the Me262and Meteor, and its twin engine bombers were suited to both army Although reconnaissance and fleet protection were the
with extraordinary versatility;a great asset in war. Onc with almost casual interest, seeing them as outside of and navy use,Again vulnerability wasa major problem. roles initially performed by naval aircraft, the carriers
thing many ofthc successful machines had in common their requirements. However, once the ,\Ie 262 had An alternative solution was the high-speed unarmed alsoserved asfloating bases from which strikescould be
was the Rolls-Royce ,\Ierlin engine, another product proved its worth against US heavy bombers and the bomber.Thisconcept wasembodied with great success launched, using torpedo and dive bombers. Naval air
which had greatdevelopment potential. British got word of German developments, both sides in the .\losquito, originally dismissed by Bomber craft also proved an effective deterrent to submarines,
Russia's great strength at the war's outset lay in its pursued the subject with vigour,Dr Pricedismisses the Command's Commander-in-Chief as being of no use, and convoy protection by land- and carrier-based air
ability to takethe aggressor'sfirst mightyand unexpect postwar myths that the Me 262 was not put into large but soon to prove its worth - and with a significantly craft, using progressively improved radar systems, be
ed blow and then, after a massive logistics exercise in scale production early enough, and that Hitler's edict lower loss rate compared with its Bomber Command camea vitaland effectiveduty,
which its threatened factories were withdrawn to the that the aircraft should initially be used as a fighter contemporaries,astheauthor shows. Both Britainand the USAsuffered from theinability
depthsofthisvastcountry,torally,recoup itslossesand bomber caused any appreciable delay in its operational japan was the only nation to resort to the desperate ofthe different Services to agree on their respectivere
hit back with a vengeance. It was fortunate for both introductionasafighter.Thegreatweaknessesofthe"Ie measure of mass suicide or Kamikaze attacks, mostly sponsibilities.Thus the RAF regarded itsflying boats as
Britainand theUSSRthat Germanyhad failed todevel 262 were its unreliable engines and poor serviceability, using ageing aircraft adapted for the purpose, but also an alternative to the fleet,and the Royal Navy was not
opasuccessfullong-rangebomber,Had Hitlerbeenable and acomparison ofvictoriesclaimed against losses re with the purpose-designed Ohka, essentially nothing permitted tohaveland-attack aircraft. Inthe USA itwas
to cripple the centres of manufacrure of either nation, vealspoorresults. more than a rocket-propelled piloted bomb. Although some time before the US Navy assumed responsibility
theoutcomewould havebeen verydifferent. The spectacular narure of the diminutive Me 163 there can be no doubting the success ofmany ofthese for allmaritime patrolaircraft, having hitherto been rc
Thestoryoffighterdevelopmentfrom 1941 onwards rocket-propelledinterceptor belied itsdisappointingand operations,the cost in pilots'liveswashorrendous. stricted tocarrieraircraft and water-basedmachines.On
istakenup by Dr Alfred Price,who beginsbysurveying dangerous Serviceuse,and againweare presented with The aeroplane which brought the war with japan to theotherhand,thejapanesenavysfreedomtousewhat
the continuing and parallel development of Britain's figureswhichshowitto havebeenfarfromsuccessfulin itsclimactic end was the B-29 Superfortress,the evolu everaircraft itwanted resulted inmuchduplicatedeffort
Spitfireand Germany'sBf109,and thedisadvantagesof combat. tion of which had begun in 1938, before the war had and imposed astrainonthenation'sindustries.
suchprolonged continuation ofaline,He then turnshis Speculationcanbeapointlesspursuit,but therevela even started, It was the most technologically advanced Newtechnologyand techniqueshad to bedeveloped
attention on new fighter types introduced into service tionoftheoutstandingsuperiorityoftheVampire Iwhen piston engined heavy bomber of the war,but Germany for attacking capital ships, both with bombs and torpe
duringthewarbyBritain,Germany,theUSA,japanand compared with the Spitfire XIV,inallaspectsofcombat progressed a stage further, developing the world's first does,and for operating aircraft from carriers which,in
theUSSR,underlining the essentialrequirementsofen performance, makes one wonder how the jet fighter operational jet bomber, theArado Ar 23413. As the au turn, imposed limits on aircraft size and weight.
gine and armament and how these wereaffected bythe might have affected air combat had the war continued. thorpointsout in hisconclusion, theprincipalelements Furthermore, the limited number ofaircraft that could
specific role or operational situation, Comparative per In truth,however,the jet fighters had a negligible influ of the Cold \Var were ready at the war's end; the jet becarriedmeant thatoneaircrafttype might berequired
formance datahighlightthe relativemeritsand demerits enceon thewar, bomber,thecruise missile(embodiedin theVI) and the toperformseveraldifferent roles,whicheffectivelycom
oftheprincipaltypes, In his chapter 'The Bomber Revolution', ,\like atomicbomb. promised its design.The great variety ofaircraft dcvel
Nightfighting placed the emphasison quitedifferent Bowyer stresses the differing tactical philosophies that Airmobility,orthetransportoftroopsandequipment oped tomeetthewiderangeofrequirementsisapparent
fighterattributes.and thesectiondealingwiththisaspect determinedtheapproaches takenbythevariouswarring by aircraft,came into itsown in the Second\X'orld\X'ar, in theauthor's country-by-country survey.
opens with an outline ofBritain's night air defence sys nations,Whilc Germany had concentratedonthesmall Peter Hearn describes how the German assault on the Itmightbethoughtthatrotary-winged aircraftplayed
tem,atthetimetheonlyreallyeffectivesystemofitstype er,short-range twin engined medium bombers and sin Low Countries, using paratroops and glider-borne in an insignificant part intheSecondWorldWar,but Elfan
inthe world,and the wayin which thefightersoperated gle engined Stukas, believing dive-bombing to be an fantry, took the defenders completely by surprise. ap Rees' chapter shows that the leading combatant na
within it.The Luftwaffe system evolved on similar lines essential capability if accuracy was to be achieved, Although both the Russians and Italians,as wellas the tions evinced a continued interest in their possibilities,
but took longer to develop, and the incessant 'battle of Britain'sbomber force wasinitiallyformed with the aim Germans,had developed theconceptofairborneopera and that rotorcraftweremoreactivethan isgenerallyre
the boffins' to devise increasingly better radars and, in of waging a strategic campaign to destroy the enemy's tions in the interwar years, Britain was conspicuously alised, Britain, France, Germany,japan and Russia all
response, more effective radar countermeasures, is a industriesand navy,and therefore comprisedlong-range slow in recognising both the threat and the potentialof employedautogyrosofvarioustypesinavarietyofroles,
centraltheme, twin enginebombers,witha new generation offour en such assaults, and lacked not only the aircraft but also and helicopter developments by Focke-Achgelis and
The useofthe fighter-bomberwas pioneered bythe gine heavy bombers under development.In both cases the knowledge to follow suit. Thus disadvantaged, FlennerinGermanyandSikorskyintheUSAresultedin
Luftwaffe, but once its advantages were perceived by the resulting machines initially proved inadequate and Britain's armed services had an uphill struggle to catch practical machines which saw Service use in the latter
their opponents the type became an important compo vulnerable in the face of determined opposition, and up with the technology, but were able to begin opera yearsofthe war. InBritain,developmentoftheWeirhe
nent ofallofthecombatant forces,Unlikeabomber,the both sides learned their respectivelessonsthehard way, tions in 1941. IntheUSAas wellthe military were slow licopter having been abandoned early in the war, the
fighter-bomber could revert to its pure fighter role and suffering littlesuccess and heavy losses. to adopt the concept, but at least they had the C-47,a Sikorskyhelicopterwasadopted, but wasnotused oper
defenditselfonce ithad released itsbombs,MoreO\'er,it \X'hile Britain upgraded only theWellington, prefer purpose-builttransport which wasto become theAllies' ationallybefore the war'send.
was cheaper, required fewer crew, and had far better ring to introduce completely new types, Germany fol principalair-support aircraft,and ample production fa RWallace Clarke's study ofthe development of air
speedandaltirude performance.Disadvantageswerethe lowed a path of continual updating of the original cilitieswellbeyondtheenemy'sreach,Thesuccessfuluse craftarmamentisdividedofnecessityinto sectionsdeal
smallbomb load and limited radius ofaction,Such air designs, A significant contribution to the Allied cause of airborne divisions in the invasion of Europe and to ing with guns, gunsighting, powered gun turrets and
craftdemanded newoperationaltechniquesandspecial came from theUSA,whereseveralexcellent bombersof support theRhinecrossingdemonstrated thatthe lesson rocketweapons,eachsection then beingsubdivided into
ly developed weapons, particularly for use against various classes were developed,as mentioned earlier,In had been learnt,but the disaster at Arnhem underlined therespectivenations.Asinallotheraspectsoftheaero
difficult targets such as tanks, Dr Price exposes the fal Russiatheemphasiswasagainontwin-cngined medium the costofbad planning. plane's evolution, the 'baptism of fire' quickly revealed
lacyofthemuch-vaunted air-launched unguided rocket bombers, though one four engined strategic heavy As Norman Friedman shows, the part of the aero theshortcomingsofthevariousweaponsandweapon in
projectile,which lacked accuracy and was quite ineffec bomber,the Pe-8, was developed.Germany's only true planeinthe waratseawassignificant.Neither Germany stallations. Some lessons were surprising. Few pilots
tiveagainstarmoured vehicles. bomberinthisclass,the He177,wasdoggedthroughout nor Italy had any aircraft carriers, but large forces of could hit anything at ranges greater than two or three
He concludes with a survey of the development and itsoperationallifebyinterminablepowerplantproblems, these vessels were operated by Britain, japan and the hundred yards, densityand rateoffirewasmore impor
use of rocket- and jet-propelled fighters, Interestingly, and never realised itspotential. USA,Inaddition,land-basedaircraftandseaplaneswere tant than the calibre ofthe shells,and solid steel shells
both Luftwaffe and RAF senior officers initially japan put range before defence in bomber design, used in maritime roles by all of the maier powers, were more destructive than high-explosive projectiles.
8 9
r
AIRCRAFT OF T HE SECO:-;IJ 'X'ORI.IJ "'AR
While Britain and the USA concentrated on output,re by Dr Price,butwhileone author isconsidering the air
1
liability and commonality ofammunition,Germany up craftfrom the pointofviewofthe technology itembod
graded its weapons constantly and produced a wide ied, the other is concerned with its effectiveness as a
Axis Aircraft at the Outbreak ofWar
range ofnew typesofgun,Nor wascommonality a pri combat aircraft.'Ibis serves to remind us that there are
orityofthejapanese,the navy usingdifferentweaponsto at least two sides toevery question,and that conclusions
E R Hooton
the army, and both Servicesmixing typesand calibres, depend to a large degree on the approaches on which
The sights used with the guns, and the turrets in theyarcbased,
which the gunswere mounted, were asrich in theirvari The second part of this chapter, contributed by Germany concept of the Operational (Operaticer) Art, with
etyasthe guns themselves,and bothweresubjecttocon Patrick Hassell, looks at the extraordinary business At the outbreak of war in September 1939 Germany's Strategy confined to activity above army group level,
stant development and improvement, Unguided rockets of aircraft ferrying, both within the British Isles from Reichsluftwaffe wasthe world's mostpowerful airforce, 'Ibisphilosophysubsequentlyhelpeddefine militaryair
were fairly basic devices, but Germany pioneered the factory to Service unit,and across vast oceans and con This status was achieved not merely numerically,for its craft requirements,
guidedmissilewith itswire-guided X4 and radio-guided tinents, It is no usc having new aeroplanes pouring first-linestrength of4,093aircraft was nearlyhalfthatof Tactical operations were largely the responsibility of
Hs 293, from the production lines ifyou cannot get them 10 the the Soviet Air Force (which had 7,321 on NewYear's the Nahaufklarungsstaffeln on land and the Seenahauf
Every aeroplane embodies a number of systems and places where they arc desperately needed, and the ac Day 1939), but on the fact that the vast majority of klarungsstaffeln as wellas the Bordflicgerstaffeln at sea,
an assortment ofequipment,some vital to the machine complishments of the Air Transport Auxiliary, the its aircraft (92 per cent) were of modern design and '[be former were attached to Armee Korps and Panzer
itselfor itscrew,and some 10 enable the aircraft 10 per Atlantic Ferry Organisation and the Return Ferry construction, Divisionen and were essentially what the Royal Flying
form its appointed task,In Chapter 9 Les Coombs viv Service were impressive, to say the least.The impact of Germany's successincompletingaerialre-equiprnent Corps in the First World War had called Corps Aero
idlyillustrates thegreat advances made in thewaryears, the experience gained in intercontinental operations on before its enemies gave the Luftwaffe an edge which it planes,single-engined two-seaterswith the rolesoftacti
and the rapidly increasing complexity of the machine the postwar development of commercial air transport used to devastating effectover the next three years,The cal reconnaissance (visual and photographic), artillery
that was the aeroplane,'Well-equipped' is,of course, a was surely profound, edge was made keener by the structure and philosophy observation and direction,ground attack and resupply,
relative term that changes in accordance with the stan Thisvolume concludeswithjohn Golley'saccount of oftheLuftwaffe,whichwasfar morethan thepurelytac Their floatplane equivalents in the Royal Naval Air
dardsofeach particular period,Although the aircraftof thetrainingsystemsadopted byGermanyand theAllies, ticalforce which mostpost-waraviationhistoriansclaim, Service had similar tactical reconnaissance and artillery
theearlywar period might havebeen regarded as repre The title 'Vital Command',chosen by him,stresses the Indeed,had it been a tactical force it would never have supportduties,butresponsibilityforcoastalanti-subma
senting the latest in technologicalaccomplishment,they importance of training to allair arms, and the essential spearheadedNaziGermany's success,buttounderstand rineoperations replaced ground-attack/resupplyduties,
were not total 'weapons systems' as we now understand and basic need for a system that ensures a continual its philosophy requires a slight diversion into German In most of Europe's air forces, Corps Aeroplanes
theterm, Indeed, compared with themachinesofthelate flow of well-trained aircrew, Closely allied to this, of military thought, comprised 20 to 40 per cent of the total first-line
war period they seem relativelysimplein some respects, course,was the provisionofsuitableaircraft onwhich to In theaftermath ofthe Napoleonic wars the German strength, but in the Luftwaffe they were only 7,5 per
The incessant battle10 increase safetyand save valuable train them,The author shows that the Luftwaffe had General Staff recognised that the appearance of mass cent,'[be majority of the Nahaufk.liirungsstaffeln were
pilots' lives,improve the performanceand capabilitiesof ample facilities and recruits,but that its training system armies meant thatthe old division ofmilitaryoperations equipped with the Henschel Hs 126, a stressed-skin
the machine and counter or outsmart the opponent was inadequate and began 10 fragment owing 10 the intoTacticsand Strategywasinadequate,Theytherefore monocoque, braced-wing monoplane with a radial
meant that significant progress was made in the five urgent need to replace combat losses, whereas the confinedTactics to operations by army corps and their engine and fixed undercarriage,It was typicalofthe last
years ofwar. Empire Flying Training Scheme tapped resources component units (although these could be extended to generation ofsuchaircraft,being designed for operation
Andrew Nahum's short chapter on aero engines around the world, '\\oreO\'er,the significantcontribution armies in certain circumstances), and the activities of from small, roughly prepared fields 10 a requirement
establishes the state ofengine development at the war's of the USA ensured that there was an ample supply of armies and army groups now came under the new which emphasised visibility from the semi-enclosed
outbreak and looks at the problems engine designers well-trained aircrcwto operate the machines,
faced as they sought 10 improveefficiency and reliabili Last, but by no means least, mention must be made
ty,The allied and inseparable subjects of high-octane of artist Frank ,\Iunger's splendid cutaway drawing of
fuels and supercharging are also covered, as are prob the HawkerTyphoon, undoubtedly the first such draw
lematic engines, Finally, the hurdles confronting the ing of this aircraft ever produced,'[be aim in thisseries
designersofthe first jetenginesarc outlined, is to feature a cutaway in each volume, the aircraft
Chapter II comprises contributions from two selected being typicalof the period covered rather than
authors, Capt Eric Brown, an accomplished test pilot, exceptional.'[beTyphoon suits this criterion admirably,
describes the roleof flight testing in wartime and high being very much aproductoftheSecond World\Var era
lightssome specificaspectsand aircraft. Hisassessment with regard to its design, structureand powerplant.
of the ,\Ie 163 as a 'landmark in aviation technology'
might seem 10 be at variance with the opinion expressed PhilipJarrett
The Henschel Hs 126 Corps aircraft had largely replaced the Hei..kel He 45 a..d He 46 in the Nahaufhlarungsstaffel.n
by theoutbreakofrmr,
10 II
AIRCRAFT OF THE SECO:-;O ,"'OR!.D ,"'AR AXIS .~tRCRAFT AT T HE OUTBREAK OF ,"'AR
naissance and higher performance. By 1939 prototypes
ofthe new aircraft,the Fockc-\'(/ulfFw 189,were flying.
Following a trend common in the late 1930s, it was a
min-boom design, like the Fokker G.I and Lockheed
1'-38. Likethe contemporary Potez 637 armyco-opera
tion aircraft, the Fw 189 (which entered service late in
19-10) had twin engines,a retractableundercarriage and
a fully enclosed cockpit, which made it seem a world
away from the Hs 126,although their performance and
combat capability weresimilar.
One prototype Fw 189 was modified to meet the
close-support or 'Schlacht' requirement. 'Ibis mission
The Focke-Il:z//fFu:189 1'3Ulli the third prototypeofthe was developed by the German Army during the First
ttcin-engined Corpsaircraftdesignedto replacethe Hs 126. WorldWar,when Schlachtaircraft wereessentially flying
111etypebegan toenterservicefrom thealltlllm/of1940. storm troops designed (0 assist an advance on the Inadequatedefensivearmamentled to redesign of theDornierDo I7'sfoncardfuselage,andthiscersion entered service illthe
ground by attacking enemy troops with automatic summerof1938astheDo 172,seenhere.Although theaircrafthadonlyasmallbombbay,itteasfrequently usedforloui-lerel
cockpit. The radio and the topographic camera in the weapons and small bombs. Its wartime success meant surpriseattacksbecauseitsshouldermounted tcings madeiteasierforpilotstojudgetheiraltitude.
rear bay (supplemented by a hand-operated camera on that in 193-1 an updated requirement was issued as the
the port side) were the most important items of equip Light Divebornber,for which the Henschel Hs 123 was wellascramped,but itwascheapertobuild and in 19-11 jumo 205C diesels proved extremely unreliable, al
ment, while the armament, typically, was derisory, selected.Thiswasacuriousmixtureofoldandnew,with was selected for production. though they provided exceptional operating economy.
comprising a single fixed 7.9mm (0.30in) MG 17 ma sesquiplaneconfiguration,fixed undercarriage and open The naval equivalent of the Hs 126 was the Arado However,radialenginedversionsproved popularabroad
chine-gun forthe pilot and asimilar-calibreMG ISona cockpit but all-metal monocoque construction and Ar 196 floatplane, an elegant all-metaltwin-float design and they served with five air forces.
movable mounting for the observer. The maximum mixed-construction wings. The 'Ein-Zwei-Drei', as it ofmodern construction which was to provesurprisingly The other two were designed to follow another typ
bomb load was only 100kg (220lb). Against the latest waspopularlycalled,formed the basisofthe Stuka (Stu agile.At the outbreak ofwar theArado was being intro ical 1930sfashion, the conceptofa bomber fast enough
generation of high-performance fighters, such aircraft rzkampfflugzeug) Gruppen, and despite the support of duced into the Bordtliegcrstaffeln, but these still had to outpace enemy fighters. The concept reflected the
were dead meat with only their manoeuvrability to the Luftwaffe's head of development, Oberst Wolfram many He 60 biplanes which also equipped the technological revolution created by combining light
protect them. von Richthofen, it was gradually withdrawn from Secnahaufklarungsstaffeln and may be regarded as the weight monocoque,stressed-skin airframes with power
•\IanyoftheNahaufklarungsstaffeln retained someof service. floatplane equivalentofthe He -15. ful engines at a time when fighter design emphasised
the older Heinkel He -15 biplanes and He -16 braced In 1937,however,Richthofen (acousinofthefamous Curiously, the Luftwaffe's first defacto chiefof staff, manoeuvrabilityat the expense of speed and firepower.
monoplaneswith woodenwingsand fuselagesofwelded 'Red Baron' and minor 'ace' in his own right) became Oberst (later Generalleutnant) Walther\'('e\'er, brought Against biplane or braced-wing monoplane fighters the
steel tube covered by doped fabric and metal panels. chiefofstaffto the CondorLegion,the Germanexpedi with him when he transferred from the army the latter's fashion proved sound.as the He III and Do 17were to
This form of construction had appeared in the First tionary force fightingin Spain for Franco's Nationalists. beliefin the supremacyofTactical air power, but exten demonstrate during the next two years. Both were
WorldWar and was extensivelyemployed until theearly The Legion had copied the Spanish and used itsobsol sive reading led him to change his mind.Within a year elegant, streamlined designs, but experience in the
1930s,when itwassupplantedbyall-metal,stressed-skin ete Heinkel He 51 fighters for the Schlacht role with Wever had not only accepted that the Luftwaffe should Spanish Civil War, and natural caution, dictated a
monocoque construction techniques which produced great success, and had recommended the development havean operatirerrole with the emphasis upon bombers strengthening of defensive armament to supplement
lighter but stronger airframes.Yet the Corps Aeroplane ofdedicated ground-attack aircraft with armoured pro interdicting the enemy rear at army/army group or fleet self-scalingtanks.TheHe 1111'-1had onlythree MG 15
itselfwasbecomingananachronism,ableneithertofight tection for theTactical role. It is interesting to note that level and destroying enemy air power, but he had also
nor flee,and theLuftwaffehadbegundevelopingamore the Russianscame toasimilarconclusion,leadingto the 'sold' the concept to the Army's high command.The
modern concept from 1937 based upon tactical recon- development of the Ilyushin 11-2'Ilyusha', concept was also acceptable to his political masters be
At the outbreak of war only one Schlachtgruppe causethe bomberscouldalsobe used to cow Germany's
existed, and thiswas equipped with the ageing Hs 123, neighbours in peacetime by threatening to annihilate
which was essentially a flying machine-gun nest, with theircities and factories.
two MG 17s which could be supplemented by up to Luftwaffe bombers were therefore designed to strike
200kg (-I-IOlb) ofbombsortwo 20mm (0.78in) MG FF at Germany's immediate neighbours, and four designs
cannon.Its potential replacements,the Fw 189Vlband emerged during the mid 1930s.The Luftwaffe require
the Hs 129, both twin-engined aircraft, were flying in ments had assigned priority to bomb load, followed by
prototype form by the outbreakofwar.The former was speed, defensive armament and range, but the general
atwo-scat armoured versionoftheFw 189(theSchlacht requirement was for an aircraft with a I,OOOkm (600
model of which was to be designated Fw 189C), with mile) range, a maximum speed of 350km/h (215mph)
fourMG 17sand two MG FF forward and two 7.9mm and a I tonne (2,200lb) bomb load. The requirement 11"HeillkelHe III 1'3(formerlyHe IIIb)of1935wasthe
Entering servicefromJllly 1939,theAradoAr 196 replaced MG 81saft,while the latter was a dedicated single-seat wasmet bythreedesignswhich wereessentiallycomple second bomber prototype and the pattern for the under
theHeinkelHe60.Designedasaspotteraircraft,itwas used design with armourplate6-12mm thick,75mm thickar mentary, the Dornier Do 17, Heinkel He III and poueredHe IlIA seriestcith BMWI'I 6.02engines.Only
for a variety ofdillies including escort fighter, and could mouredglassand anarmament oftwo1\IG 17sand two junkers ju 86, the emphasis in each design being on tchen theDaimler-Benz 600 andJlmkersJIIIIIOu'ereintro
sometimesmatchtheBeaufighter.Twooftheseaircrafthelped MG FE The Hs 129's protection was its only advan speed, bomb load and range respectively,By 1939 theju duced did the He 111 becometheformidableaircraft ichich
tocapturetheBritish subma rine HAtS Seal. tage, for the aircraft proved severely underpowered as 86 had been withdrawn from servicebecause itsjunkers Ullithe'third leg'of theKampfgruppen.
12 13
AIRCRAFT 0 F 'I'll ESECOXD W0 RLD \X'AR AXIS AIRCRA FT AT TilE OUT BREAK OF WAR
A design tchich rcasilltheright placeal the right lime.Likeseveralpassengeraircraft ofthelime,theJUllkersJu 52 could be
adapted10abomber,andsereraldespatched10Spain ill1936performedbothroles.Largenumbersreerebuillasbombersotcing
10 thefailureoftheDornierDo 11/13/23family,anduirtuallyallhadbeentransferred10transport unitsbySeptember 1939.
AIthat lime itrcasalso usedfor trainingandelectronic intelligence,schileduring the rcarit ",asfilled tcith a largemagnetic
coilfor magneticminessceeping.
machine-guns in nose,dorsaland ventral positions, but received the appropriate direction-finding (OF) loop
laterversions such as the1'-4 had armour protection for aerial.TheRAFbycontrastwasslownotonlycreating a
the pilot, a second MG 15 in the nose and two firing beacon networkand equipping its aircraft but also pro
from theside with a fifth crew memberto operatethem. viding sufficient navigators.The Lufthansa practice of 17" performance of the JUI/kers Ju 88 1'3, the first prototype 10 hare JUllkers Jmllo 211s, clinched the auiard of
Similar improvements were made in the He IIIH-2, all-weather operation extended into the night, and this, the 'Schnellbomber'contract 10 thc manufacturer.Producnon oftheJu 88 u'as undcrtcay illSeptember 1939,alld the type
while the Do 172 expanded its defensive armament too, was copied by the Luftwaffe, all of whose major became olleoftheLufncaffe'sII1OS1usefulaircraft,
from three to four MG 15s but ventral cover was im baseshad Lorenzinstrument-landing systems and allof
proved through a redesigned nose.The Do 17 was ex whose bombers had the appropriate receivers.The sys A major weakness ofthe first generation of German who assumed the position ofGeneralluftzeugmeister in
ported to Yugoslavia and an improved export version tem was modified into an instrument bombing system, bombers (Do 11/13/23 and]u 52) had been poor bomb 1938, but also under his predecessor, Richthofen, who
with 0H60IAin-line engineswasunderdevelopment at 'X-Verfahren', one of three in service or at advanced sights,which led to intense interest in dive-bombing for initiallywent to Spain to test new typesincludingproto
the outbreakofwar as the Do 215, and was destined to stages ofdevelopmentat theoutbreakofwar. greater accuracv,, From its earliest dav.s the Luftwaffe type ]u 87s. Another enthusiast was Oberst Hans
join the specialised Aufklarungsstaffeln ofthe Luftwaffe had Sturzkampfflugzeug units, and the Light Di\'e ]eschonnek, the Luftwaffe chiefofstaff in 1939,whose
High Command (ObdL). By the beginning of the war bomber requirement which led to the Hs 123 was earlier staff appointment gave him considerable
the Luftwaffe had I,I71 medium bombers or 28.5 per accompanied by a Hem")' Dive-bomber requirement influence in aircraft development. The combination of
cent of its first-line strength, but their individual bomb drafted around the]u 87, the emphasis of thislatter re influences was to have a pernicious effect upon
load waslimited.Thehorizontalbomb baysofthe Do 17 quirement being on bomb load. Despite the acquisition Luftwaffe bomber development,as was becoming clear
could not accommodate anything larger than 250kg of the Lotfe 70 tachometric bomb sight by September at the outbreakof war.
(550Ib) bombs,and with afullbombload thetacticalra 1939,theLuftwaffewastheonlyland-based airarm with A demand for a dive-bombing capability was
diuswas reduced to about 320km (200 miles).The He a large dive-bomberforce,whichcomprised 24 per cent included in the requirement for the Luftwaffe's next
III had threetimesthisrange,buttheverticalcellsofits ofallGerman bombers.The]u 87 could carry a 500kg generation medium and heavy bombers, the ]u 88,
bomb bay could accommodate nothing larger than (1,102Ib) bomb some600km (370 miles),and could be Do217and He In .Thefirst,envisaged asahigh-speed
500kg (I,1201b) bombs, heavier loads, including a used foreither tacticalor operaticer missions,but dcfen three-seat aircraft with a speed of 500km/h (310 mph),
1,000kg bomb, having to be carried externally,with the sive armament (two fixed MG 17s forward and one arangeof3,000km (1.850miles)and amaximumbomb
resulting draglimiting range. TheJUllkersJu 871'3 prototype first fleu: ill 1935, anda movableMG 15 aft) was limited and it required condi loadof2tonnes(4,410Ib),hadaddedtoitarequirement
One feature of Luftwaffe bombers not generally yearlater a pre-production aircraft served briefly illSpain tionsofaerialsuperiorityto operateeffectively.Alonger toconduct30°-angledive-bombingattacks,and Spanish
noted wastheir ability to operate in allweathers.Thisre underthe supervision ofOberstll'iJifram VOII Richthofen.It ranged version was completing development for experience indicating the need for better defensive
quirement came from Milch, whose direction had en returned10Germany ill 1937,but laterill theyeara mlm anti-shipping operations as the]u 87R,and a study was armament led to afourthcrewmember being added.As
sured that Lufthansa possessed such a capability before berofproductiondive-bombersU'eresenttoSpainandbegan also under wayofacarrier-borne version ofthe]u 87B, aresultofnumerousdesign changes,theweightofthe]u
the Nazis came to power. This was emulated by the the type's famous career. By the outbreak of u'ar eight the]u87C. 88 doubled and performance dropped,so that the initial
Luftwaffe,which established a network ofradio beacons Stnkagruppen ",ere ill service, three under Richthofen as Dive-bombing fascinated the Luftwaffedevelopment production aircraft, which was entering service at the
throughout the Reich,and every multi-engined aircraft FliegerfiihrerzbV (laterFliegerhorps1'111). organisationnotonlyunder Generalleutnant ErnstUdet, outbreak of war, had a maximum speed of 460km/h
14 15
AIRCRAFT OF THE SECO:-:D WORLD \X'AR AXIS AIRCRAFT AT T IlE OUTBREAK OF WAR
UnliketheRAT;the Luftwaffedevelopeda long-range escortfighterlinterceptor ill theMesscrscluniu Bf JJ0,Production ,,'as
slou:during thesummer ofJ939,andonlyafew Zerstorergruppenhadreceivedthetype ichen Poland,,'as inuaded.771Csitu
ationgradually improved,andscithin ayeartheBf JJ01msbeing usedfor other rolesincludingreconnaissance.forzchichthis
Bf IJOC-5 wasdeveloped,
(286mph) and a range of 1,770km (1,100 miles).The outbreak of war, Fortunately Focke-\\'ulf had been de fenestration, The majority of reconnaissance aircraft He 59 twin-cngined multi-role floatplane which was
maximum internal bomb load was 1,800kg (3,960lb) or signinga long-range maritime reconnaissanceversion of were Do 171'/1'versionsoftheDo I7E/",Ibombers,with used also for anti-ship operations and minelaying.
2,000kg externally, the internal bomb load being the Fw200B four-engined airlinerforthejapanese Navy camerasin the bomb bay,supplemented bysmallnum Experience quicklyconfirmed that both wereatthe end
confined to 50kg bombs, as the Fw200C,and inSeptember theLuftwaffe placed bersofju88As and He IIIHs.Thephilosophyofusing of their operational lives, but the replacement for the
Thedive-bombingrequirementwasalso extended to an orderfor asmallnumber. bombers for long-range reconnaissance was part of the Do 18,the three-cngincd Blohm undVoss B\' 138 with
Germany'sfour-enginedbomber,theHe 177,which was InterestinglyDiplIng Heinrich Hertel,who had con First World War philosophical baggage, when dual use jumo 205 dieselengines,required considerable redesign
scheduled to be in widespread service by 19-12, ducted initial design work on the He 177, joined the was the norm,such aircraft beingcapableeitherofout and was not available until the following summer,
Unfortunately for the Luftwaffe thisextremely sophisti junkers organisation in the summer of 1939 and took pacingor outfighting thefewfighterswhich mightinter Fortunately there were no such problems with the He
cated aircraft, designed to the Bomber A requirement, charge of the Bomber B design.This was a ju 88 re cept them. As the Luftwaffe quickly discovered, this I15 multi-role floatplanc which was to replace the He
wasto be plagued bydevelopmentproblems.Theproto placement,the requirement for which was issued injuly philosophy depended upon the enemy having old-fash 59,Thenewaircraft wastheantithesis ofitspredecessor,
type's four Daimler-Benz DB 60I engines were paired 1939 and the developmentofwhich proved asaccident ionedfighters,and the introductionofhigh-performance an all-metal monoplane with enclosed crew positions
in two nacellesas the 0 B606,and were prone to over proneas that ofBomber A. In this programme also the interceptors placed aircraft such as the Do 17 in the in and a bomb bay which could hold mines or torpedoes,
heating,This exacerbated the aircraft's weight problem Luftwaffewastoprove too ambitious and Udet'sorgan vidious position where they could neither out-fight nor The floatplaneconfiguration wasto impose increasingly
causedbythe need for strengthening to meet a60°dive isation inadequate, out-run their opponents, especially when the latter severe performance restrictions, but the He I15 was to
angle requirement. It had been anticipated that the The dive-bombing requirement also plagued the had radar to provide early warning of their victim's provea robustand reliabledesign.
loaded weight of the operational He 177 would be Do 217,a genuinelytwin-cngincd heavy bomber which approach. Unlike its rivals,the Luftwaffe had onlyone modern
approximately 27 tonnes (59,500lb), but successive may be regarded as the equivalent of the Avro The solution was based upon adapting fighter single-engine fighter design at the outbreak of war,and
prototypesincreased in weight untilthe first production Manchester.The maiden flightwasin August 1938 and designs for reconnaissance using their high speed at virtually all the jagdgruppen had the Bf 109, with a
version (He 177A-I) had a loaded weight of 30 tonnes development was under way in 1939,but the umbrella lower altitudes or, even more effectively, flying at very strength of 1,151 aircraft.The selection of the Bf 109
(66,100lb), like dive brake in the tailproved a major headache and high altitudes which even forewarned interceptors had was a political and operationaltriumph for its designer,
The idea of a four-engined bomber divingat 60°has eventually,in 1939, Udctauthorised the temporarysus difficulty in reaching.To meet the former requirement ProfessorWilli,\icsscrschmitt,whohad had toovercome
been much derided by aviation historians, but it should pension of the dive-bomber requirement, As the han the Messerschmitt Bf 11OC-5 was already being devcl personal prejudice (from the Luftwaffe's second-in
be noted that RAF Specification P13/36, which led dlingcharacteristicsoftheaircraftproved unsatisfactory, oped at the outbreakofwar,whilefor the latter require command,Generaloberst Eberhard Milch) and conser
directlytothe HalifaxandindirectlytotheLancaster,in amajor redesignwasauthorised, leadingtothe Do217E ment, for which the British swiftly used modified vatism which might have been epitomised in Udct
eludedanunspecified diveanglerequirement,70°atone thefollowing year. Spitfires, the Luftwaffeagain used bombers.A proposal (whose62 victorieswerewon intraditionalfighters).Far
time being seriously considered. In the event Goring The Luftwaffe's bombers (and those of Italy's Regia was received from junkers to convert ju 86 airframes from being a stick-in-the-mud, however, Udct quickly
personally authorised removal of the dive-bomber re Aeronautica) were also its 'eyes', both in their normal with pressurised cabins and improved engines as theju recognised the value ofthe Bf 109 and his demonstra
quirementearlyinthe He I77'sdevelopment,but Udet's configuration and in dedicated long-range reconnais 86H (laterju 861'),and thisappeared in thesummer of tions undoubtedly helped to extinguish any opposition
compartrnentalised organisation with its blinkered engi sance versions, The latter were assigned to separate 19-10 together with the Bf IIOC-5, from traditionalists,The Bf I09Ewastheprimefirst-line
neerswas unable to resolvethe bomber's problems until Army and Luftwaffe Fcrnaufklarungsstaffcln, although The only Luftwaffe reconnaissance units with dedi aircraft, with a maximum speed of 550km!h (3-12mph)
19-13,The absence of the He 177, which was to have the Karnpfgeschwadcr themselves conducted a great cated reconnaissance aircraft were the Seefernauf and a formidable armament of two 20mm MG FlO
been the backbone ofthe long-rangeanti-shippingforce, deal of reconnaissance for their own missions and klarungsstaffeln and the Kustenmehrzweckstaffeln, the cannonand two ,\IG 17machine-guns,but asubstantial
created a major problem for the Luftwaffe at the German bombers were noted for their extensive formerwith the Do 18 flyingboatand thelatter with the number of the older Bf 109Ds were in service with the
16 17
AIRCRAFT 01' T ilE SECO:-:D \\'ORL D \\'AR AXIS AIRCRAFT AT TilE OUTBREAK OF \\'AR
Twin-engined aircraft with two- or three-man crews, airfields behind enemy lines. Not even the Soviet Air
such as the Bf 110, were greatly influenced by experi Force. which had pioneered airborne operations, had
ence in the First World War, notably with the Bristol such a force.
Fighter and the Caudron C.II. In the face ofthe high
performance fighters such as the Bf 109 which emerged Italy
in the late I930s, all of the long-range fighters were to Second onlyto the Luftwaffe in prestigeat the outbreak
prove a disappointment. lacking the speed or manoeu ofthe SecondWorldWar was Italy's Regia Aeronautica.
vrability to dogfight with the single-engined aircraft. Europe's second autonomous air force, it had some
Most were to be reduced in status to ground-attackdu 2.800 first-line aircraftin September 1939.The prestige
ties in daytime,although some, like the Bf 110, were to hadbeengained through theinheritanceofthe mantleof
cam a new lease oflife as nightfightcrs. the great prophet of air power, Gen Guilio Douhet,
To supplement the Bf 109, development had begun ofthe Certainly the outbreak of the war saw the Luftwaffe throughitsoperationalexperience inEthiopiaandSpain
Foeke-Inllj'Fu:190,the1'1prototype depictedherefiyingfor activelyconsidering two designs as successors to the Bf as well as numerous record-breaking flights. Conse
thefirst lime illJlIlIe 1939.As u-ith the HaickerTyphoon, 110 in the Zerstorergruppcn.The ,\lesserschmil1 ,\Ie quently many air forces ordered Italian aircraft before LiketheJII52, theSacoia-Marcheui5.81 Pipistrello (Bat)
the design U'IlS plagued by engine problems,although ill the 210,ofwhich the prototype flew on 5 September 1939, the Second \'<'orld \,<Tar, and as late as the summer of teas a bomber transport uhich sau' extensive service ;11
CIlse of the German aircraft they u'ere exacerbated by was the favourite, given ,\lesserschmitt's experience, 1940 even the RAF wasseeking Capronilight bombers. Spain,tchereitprovedobsolescent.yete'l.'mill1939itformed
bureaucracy illtheRLII prestige and influence, while the Arado Ar 240, which The reality was that the Regia Aeronautica was a thebackboneofthe GruppiBT,although increasinglyitwas
first flew in ,\'13y 1940, was the back-up programme. turkey rather than an eagle, due largely to Italy's weak restricted 10nightbombing.
Zerstorergruppcn pending the delivery of adequate Both were extremely sophisticated designs with defen industrial base, with both aircraft companies and com
numbersofBf IlOs,and also in.the Nachtiagdgruppcn. sivc armament including remotely controlled barbettes. ponent manufacturers under-capitalised,leading to low traditional construction, with steel tube or wooden air
Development of the replacement Bf 109F with higher Unfortunatelyboth designs displayed appalling handling rates of production. Nevertheless, industry was seeking frames covered with wood or doped fabric,and mostof
performance, including a maximum speed of 600km/h characteristics,especiallywith regard tostability.TheMe to meet the Regia Acronautica's expansion plan, the bombers had similar coverings on their wings.
(373mph) but weaker armament, was already under 210 programme in particular proved prolonged and so Programme R,and allthe modern bombers such as the Compared with the all-metal rnonocoque, these weaker
way,and mention should also be madeofacarrier-borne disastrouslyunsuccessful that it provided Milch with an CRDACantZ.I007bisAlcione (Kingfisher),Fiat BR20 structures took a higher proportion of the take-off
version with improved range,the Bf 109'1',underdevel opportunity for revenge upon the designer, whom he Cicogna (Stork) and Savoia-Marchetti S.79-1Sparviero weight, imposing penalties upon both range and pay
opmentat the outbreakofwar. humiliated in 1942. (Sparrow Hawk),were low-wing cantilever monoplanes load, while the materials were more vulnerable to envi
The success ofthe Bf 109 made the higher echelons Inonerespectat least the Luftwaffewasstreetsahead with retractableundercarriages, while the other compo ronmental conditions which reduced aircraft life.
in the Luftwaffe reluctant to consider another fighter, of its rivals,That was in the provision of air transport, nent of the Gruppi BombardamentoTcrreste, the S.81 'Inc problem was compounded by the inability of
but the value of heavier armament and a more robust although this was by accident rather than design. In its Pipestrello (Bat) bomber-transport had a fixed under Italian aero-engine manufacturers to provide high
undercarriageled Udet'sorganisationreluctantlytocon earlydaysthe Luftwaffe intended supplementing its Do carriage. However, as with most of the Regia power, water-cooled, in-line motors,which forced them
sider just such a requirement. By the outbreak of war, II bomberswith asmallnumberofju 52/3m transports Aeronautica's combat aircraft,their fuselages were allof to rely upon radials often developed from foreign
therefore,workwas welladvanc d on the Fw 190 with a which would be operated by Lufthansa and be capable
radial,air-cooledengine,and inJune 1939the prototype of conversion into bombers with the appropriate kit.
made its maiden flight. The lack of integration within Althoughitwasanall-metalmonoplanewith acantilever
Udet'sorganisation meant that IlWO years were to elapse wing,the "HmICju' (Auntiejunkers),as the aircraft was
before the new fighter entered service,and it required a nicknamed. was technically an older-generation design
jagdgeschwadertechnicalofficer to providethe direction with a structureofcorrugated aluminium overa tubular
which was to make the Fw 190 one ofthe great fighters steel framework,a strong fixed undercarriage and three
ofthe SecondWorld\,<Tar. BMW 132 radialengines.
Udet's influence, and that 0 f the Nazi Party in the The failure of the Do II series, despite radical re,
shape ofMesserschmitt's good friend Rudolf Hess,also design,led to thedecision to usc the ju 52/3m as astop,
helped ensure the Luftwaffe had a long-range fighter gap pending the arrival of the second-gcneratior
(Zerstorer or Destroyer in German terminology) in the bombers (Do 17, He Ill,ju 86).The air bridge which
Bf 110, of which 102 were available.The Bf 110 was allowed General Franco to move thousands of troops
typical ofattempts by many air forcesduring the 1930s from Morocco to Spain in the earlydaysofthe Spanish
to develop an aircraft which could either accompany Civil War, mostly relying upon converted ju 52/3m
bomber formations throughout their missions or inter bombers,alerted the Luftwaffe to the advantages of air
ceptenemy bombersfar from theirtargets(animportant transport.At the outbreakofwar some 550 were in ser
requirement in the days before radar was widely avail vice, and apart from a dozen aircraft in an X-Verfahren
able). Curiously,although the Luftwaffe had developed bombing unit, all were transports. Half of them were
drop-tanksby theoutbreakofwar,the idea ofextending assigned to general transport duties (including those
single-engine fighter range by these means docs not requisitioned from Lufthansa), ready to fly in replace Italy'selegant CantieriRiunitidell'Adriatico(Cam)Z.1007bisAlcione(Kingfisher)entered serviceill 1939andhelpedform
appeareven to have been considlered,although a similar mentsand supplies toforward units,whiletheremainder the backboneofthe uxirtime Gruppi BombardamenteTerreste,yet it also summarised the uieahnesses ofthe Italian aircraft
criticism might also be applied to the US Eighth Air were assigned to Flicgerdivision 7 with crews trained industry, being ofall-uooden construction because there was insufficient investment forall-metalaircraft, and hoeing three
Force in 1942. either to drop troops by parachute or to fly them into enginesbecausetheindustry U'IlSincapableof producinghigh-poaered engines.
18 19
