Table Of ContentTopics in Mining, Metallurgy and Materials Engineering
Series Editor: Carlos P. Bergmann
Stefano Gialanella
Alessio Malandruccolo
Aerospace
Alloys
Topics in Mining, Metallurgy and Materials
Engineering
Serieseditor
Carlos P. Bergmann, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre,
RioGrandedoSul,Brazil
“TopicsinMining,MetallurgyandMaterialsEngineering”welcomesmanuscriptsin
these three main focus areas: Extractive Metallurgy/Mineral Technology;
Manufacturing Processes, and Materials Science and Technology. Manuscripts
should present scientific solutions for technological problems. The three focus
areas have a vertically lined multidisciplinarity, starting from mineral assets, their
extractionandprocessing,theirtransformationintomaterialsusefulforthesociety,
andtheirinteractionwiththeenvironment.
Moreinformationaboutthisseriesathttp://www.springer.com/series/11054
(cid:129)
Stefano Gialanella Alessio Malandruccolo
Aerospace Alloys
StefanoGialanella AlessioMalandruccolo
IndustrialEngineeringDepartment MetallurgyIndustrialConsultant
UniversityofTrento Bolzano,Italy
Trento,Italy
ISSN2364-3293 ISSN2364-3307 (electronic)
TopicsinMining,MetallurgyandMaterialsEngineering
ISBN978-3-030-24439-2 ISBN978-3-030-24440-8 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24440-8
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To my son Giulio Carlo
(SG)
To my friends and to all those who supported
me
(AM)
Preface
Theaerospacefieldistraditionallystrategicforthedevelopmentofnovelmaterials
neededforthespecificrequirementsofaircraftstructuresandpropulsionsystems.A
large number of advanced materials and relevant processing routes have been
implemented first for aerospace needs. On many occasions, aerospace materials
and technologies have subsequently been transferred successfully to a wider range
ofapplications,likechemicalindustry,energyproduction,nuclearplants,terrestrial
andmarinetransportation,andmanymore.
The aim of this book is to present an overview of the main classes of metallic
materials,likelightalloys(Al-,Mg-,andTi-based,includingTi-aluminides),steels,
superalloys, refractory alloys, oxide dispersion strengthened alloys, ordered inter-
metallics,shapememoryalloys,andrelatedsystems,e.g.,laminatecompositesand
coatings.
The basic concepts concerningthe structure of aircrafts and the working princi-
plesofgasturbineenginesarerecalledtoprovidethereaderwithindicationsonthe
specificneedsandpossibleissuesinthisfield,sothattheadoptionofgivenmaterials
systemsandrelevantprocessingroutesarebetterunderstood.
The content of the book is organized according to the main classes of materials
that are of actual and potential interest for aerospace applications. In each chapter,
materials properties and relevant technological aspects, particularly as concerns
processing,arepresented.
Themotivationsthathaveguidedtheresearcheffortsforthedevelopmentofnew
materials systems have changed over the comparatively short life of aeronautics.
Nowadays, energy-saving and environmental issues are paramount: these stand
pointsandtheirroleinmaterialsdevelopmentarealsohighlighted.
Adeliberateattempt,pursuedinwritingAerospaceAlloys,hasbeentoincludean
updatedbibliographyandindicationoffurtherreadings,bothimportantinacontin-
uouslyevolvingfield.Alistofgeneralreferencesconcerningmaterialsscienceand
engineeringandphysicalmetallurgyisincludedamongthe“FurtherReadings”lists
attheendofeachchapter.Inthisway,thefundamentalaspectsofthesedisciplines,
vii
viii Preface
which may contribute to a better understanding of the book content, can easily be
recovered.
Webelievethebookcanbeusedinadvancedundergraduatecoursesinmaterials
andmechanicalengineering,consideringthatthestartingpointforwritingthisbook
hasbeenacollectionoflecturenotesofcoursesthatSGranoverseveralyearsatthe
University of Trento and the University of Florence in Italy. However, we would
expectthatthesubjectandrelevantmaterialsinformationmayalsobeofinterestto
researchersworkinginR&Dindustriallaboratories,consideringthatinthisperspec-
tive, we have included compositional tables, some in the appendices, so that the
textbook turns out be reasonably self-consistent. We believe that the mixed aca-
demic(SG’s)andindustrial(AM’s)backgroundmayprovideoriginalandcomple-
mentary stand points on the different subjects, attracting the interest of researchers
andprofessionalsworkinginthedifferentbutstillstronglyinteractingdevelopment
laboratoriesintheacademiaandindustry.
Weconcludethisprefacewiththeacknowledgments.Inthefirstplace,wewish
tothankallthestudents(AMhasbeenoneofthematsomestage!),whoduringthe
lecture classes placed questions and contributed to a stimulating discussion, pro-
moting in this way the improvement and correction of the lecture notes. We also
thankourcolleaguesforstimulatingdiscussionsandsuggestionsonseveralsubject
dealtinthebook.
Trento,Italy StefanoGialanella
Bolzano,Italy AlessioMalandruccolo
Contents
1 ABriefIntroductiontoAerospaceApplications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 HistoricalBackground. . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . .. 1
1.2 NovelDesignCriteria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3 Aerospace-RelatedFields. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
FurtherReading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2 GasTurbineAero-Engines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2 TypesofAircraftEngines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3 Compressors. . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . .. . 26
2.4 Combustors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.5 Turbines. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. 31
2.6 StateoftheArtandFutureTrends. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
FurtherReading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3 AlloysforAircraftStructures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2 AluminumAlloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.2.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.2.2 CastAlloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.2.3 WroughtAlloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.2.4 Aluminum-LithiumAlloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.2.5 AluminumAlloysinAircraftStructures:PresentState
andPerspectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.3 MagnesiumAlloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.3.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.3.2 AerospaceMagnesiumAlloys:Metallurgy,Main
DesignationSystem,andTempers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.3.3 MagnesiumAlloyProcessing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
ix
x Contents
3.3.4 DevelopmentofAerospaceMagnesiumAlloys. . . . . . . . 99
3.3.5 CurrentAerospaceApplications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
3.4 CompositeMaterials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3.4.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3.4.2 Fiber-MetalLaminates:DevelopmentandDesignation. . . 112
3.4.3 MainProductionStepsandResultingCharacteristics. . . . 113
3.4.4 MechanicalProperties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
3.4.5 Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
FurtherReading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4 TitaniumandTitaniumAlloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
4.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
4.2 PhysicalMetallurgyAspects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
4.3 MainGroupsoftheTitaniumAlloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
4.3.1 ConventionalTitaniumAlloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
4.3.2 AdvancedTitaniumAlloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
4.4 TitaniumProcessingTechnologies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
4.5 DefectsinTitaniumAlloysandDiagnostics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
4.6 MainAerospaceApplicationsofTitaniumAlloys. . . . . . . . . . . . 182
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
FurtherReading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
5 Steels. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 191
5.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
5.2 IronandSteelMetallurgicalBaseConcepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
5.2.1 Annealing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
5.2.2 Quenching. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . 194
5.2.3 Tempering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
5.2.4 AgeHardening. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
5.2.5 SteelDesignation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
5.3 StandardandSpecialProductionTechniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
5.3.1 ArcMelting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
5.3.2 VacuumInductionMelting(VIM). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
5.3.3 ArgonOxygenDecarburization(AOD). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
5.3.4 VacuumOxygenDecarburization(VODandVODC). . . . 207
5.3.5 ElectroslagRemelting(ESR). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
5.3.6 VacuumArcRemelting(VAR). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
5.4 SteelsforAerospaceApplications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
5.4.1 MaragingSteels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
5.4.2 AerMetSteels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
5.4.3 StainlessSteels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
5.5 Steel-BasedAerospaceComponents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
5.5.1 Bearings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
5.5.2 BrakeSystems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
5.5.3 GasTurbineJetEngineParts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
5.5.4 Gearboxes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
