A History of Technology. Volume VII, The Twentieth Century, c. 1900 to c. 1950. Part II

428 Pages·1978·28.414 MB·English

by  Trevor I. Williams

A HISTORY OF
T E C H N O L O G Y
EDITED BY
TREVOR I. WILLIAMS
VOLUME VII
THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
c. 1900 TO f. 1950
PART II
CLARENDON PRESS • OXFORD
1978
Oxford University Press, Walton Street, Oxford 0x2 6dp
CONTENTS
OXFORD LONDON GLASGOW
NEW YORK TORONTO MELBOURNE WELUNGTON
IBADAN NAIROBI DAR ES SALAAM LUSAKA CAPE TOWN
KUALA LUMPUR SINGAPORE JAKARTA HONG KONG TOKYO
VOLUME VI
DELHI BOMBAY CALCUTTA MADRAS KARACHI
Chapters 1-28
© OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 1978
VOLUME VII
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, ILLUSTRATIONS IX
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without
the prior permission of Oxford University Press 29. THE DEVELOPxMENT OF THE WORLD TRANSPORT MARKET
by K, M. GwiLLiAM, Professor of Transport Economics, University of Leeds 691
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data 30. ROAD VEHICLES by lord montagu of beaulieu. National Motor
Museum 711
A history of technology.
Vol. VII
Williams, Trevor Illtyd 31. SHIPS AND SHIPBUILDING by brian Baxter, Deputy Managing
Director, Yarrow (Shipbuilders) Ltd. 736
609 Tis 78-40068
ISBN 0-19-858155-6 32. R.\ILWAYS bv o. s. .nock, formerly Chief Mechanical Engineer (Signal
and Mining Division), Westinghouse Brake and Signal Co. Ltd. 762
33. AIRCRAFT AND THEIR OPERATION by peter w. brooks.
Manager, International Collaboration, British .\ircraft Corporation 789
34. NAVIG.ATION.A.L EQUIPMENT by wg. cdr. e. w. anderson.
Gold medallist and former President, Royal Institute of Navigation 837
35. SPACE TECHNOLOGY by anthony r. michaelis. Editor, Inter­
disciplinary Science Reviews, London 857
36. CIVIL ENGINEERING by p. s. a. berridge, formerly bridge engineer
on the North Western Railway (India), the Great Western Railway, and the
Western Region of British Railways
Part I: ROADS, BRIDGES, AND TUNNELS 871
Part II: LAND RECLAMATION, CANALS, PORTS, AND
HARBOURS 907
37. BUILDING AND ARCHITECTURE by R. j. mainstone, Building
Research Establishment 930
38. TOWN PLANNING by sir colin buchanan, planning consultant and
Typeset by Gloucester Typesetting Co. Ltd. formerly Director of the School for Advanced Urban Studies, University of
Printed in Great Britain Bristol 958
by Fletcher & Son Ltd., Norwich
VI CONTENTS CONTENTS Vll
39. ENGINEERING: THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS by aubrey f. bur- 53. CINEMATOGRAPHY by david b. thomas. Keeper, Science Museum,
stall, Professor Emeritus in Mechanical Engineering, University of London and j. p. ward. Research Assistant, Science Museum, London 1302
Newcastle-upon-Tyne 983
54. MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY by Audrey b. davis. Curator, Division of
40. THE INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE by lynwood bryant. Medical Sciences, Museum of History and Technology, Smithsonian
Professor of History, Emeritus, Massachusetts Institute of Technology 997 Institution, Washington, D.C. 1317
41. THE STEAM TURBINE by allen smith. Manager, Mechanical Re­ 35. WATER SUPPLY AND WASTE DISPOSAL by f. e. bruce.
search Department, C. A. Parsons and Company Limited, Heaton Works, Reader in Public Health Engineering, Imperial College of Science and
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, and T. dixon, turbine design consultant, C. A. Technology, University of London
Parsons and Company Limited, Newcastle-upon-Tyne 1025 Part I: WATER SUPPLY 1363
42. MACHINE TOOLS by Robert s. woodbury. Professor of History of Part II: SEWERAGE AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL 1382
Technology, Emeritus, Massachusetts Institute of Technology 1035
56. FOOD TECHNOLOGY by j. b. m. coppock
43. PRODUCTION ENGINEERING by f. koenigsberger. Emeritus Part I: THE SCIENTIFIC BACKGROUND 1399
Professor of Machine Tool Engineering, The University of Manchester Part II: FOOD PROCESSING AND DISTRIBUTION I4U
Institute of Science and Technology 1046
57. TECHNOLOGY OF THE OCEAN DEPTHS by t. f. gaskell 1446
44. FLUID POWER by lord wilson of high wray, pump and water tur­
bine manufacturer 1060 58. TECHNOLOGY AND THE QUALITY OF LIFE by TREVOR I.
WILLIAMS, Editor of Endeavour 1467
45. THE GENERATION, DISTRIBUTION, AND UTILIZATION
OF ELECTRICITY by Brian bowers. Department of Electrical list of contents of volumes i-vi 1483
Engineering and Communications, Science Museum, London 1068
INDEXES 1491
46. ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING by j. r. tillman, formerly Deputy
Director of the Post Office Research Department and D. G. tucker. Senior
Fellow in the History of Technology, and formerly Professor of Electrical
Engineering at the University of Birmingham 1091
47. DOMESTIC APPLIANCES by g. b. l. wilson. Deputy Keeper
Emeritus, Department of Mechanical and Civil Engineering, Science
Museum, London 1126
48. COMPUTERS by tom margerison, formerly Chairman of Computer
Technology Limited, Hemel Hempstead 1150
49. INSTRUMENTS by frank Greenaway, Keeper, Department of
Chemistry, Science Museum, London 1204
50. ELECTRICAL COMMUNICATION by d. g. tucker. Senior Fellow
in the History of Technology, and formerly Professor of Electrical Engineer­
ing at the University of Birmingham 1220
51. PRINTING by james moran. President of the Printing Historical Society 1268
52. PHOTOGRAPHY by Helmut gernsheim, historian of photography 1281
J
ILLUSTRATIONS
29. THE DEVELOPM ENT OF THE WORLD TRANSPORT MARKET
by K. M. GWILLIAM
29.1 The domestic transport market in Britain, i960. Fom K. r. seely, The geography of
air transport. Hutchinson, London (1966) 691
30. ROAD VEHICLES by lord mont.acu of beallieu
30.1 1902 Oldsmobile Curved Dash Runabout. Courtesy of the National Motor Museum,
Beaulieu 713
30.2 1914 Ford Model T tourer. Courtesy of the National Motor Museum, Beaulieu 714
30.3 1922 Lancia Lambda Chassis. Courtesy of the National Motor Museum, Beaulieu 717
30.4 1924 Doble E-type steamer. Courtesy of the National Motor Museum, Beaulieu 721
30.5 Scammel frameless articulated tanker, c. 1927. Courtesy of the National Motor
Museum, Beaulieu 724
30.6 1934 A.E.C. Mammoth Major 15-ton rigid eight lorry. Courtesy of the National
Motor Museum, Beaulieu ' 725
30.7 1916 Foden overtype steam wagon. Courtesy of the National Motor Museum,
Beaulieu 727
30.8 1928 Twin coach side-engined bus. Courtesy of the National Motor Museum,
Beaulieu 729
30.9 1941 Aerocoach ‘Mastercraft’. Courtesy of the National Motor Museum, Beaulieu 730
30.10 1902 Werner 2-hp motor bicycle. Crown copyright. Science Museum, London 733
31. SHIPS .\ND SHIPBUILDING by Brian Baxter
31.1 Wooden sailing ships and iron-hulled paddle steamers in Dover Harbour, 1902.
Courtesy of Coode and Partners 738
31.2 Development of the cargo ship. From D. j. eyres. Ship Construction. Heinemann,
London (1972) 739
31.3 Profiles of cargo ships, 1900-59. From Transactions of the Royal Institution of Xaval
Architects (i960) 741
31.4 Growth in the size of tankers. Courtesy of B. Baxter 741
31.5 (a). The launching of the first T.2 tanker, (b). .A. T.2 tanker converted for trans­
portation of aircraft. Courtesy of the Sun Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Co. 742
31.6 The Queen Elizabeth. Courtesy of S. Bale 743
31.7 The 30 ooo-ton cruise liner Arcadia. Courtesy of the Peninsular and Oriental Steam
Navigation Company 744
31.8 Pre-fabricated fore-end structure. From D. j. eyres, op. cit. [31.2] 749
31.9 H.M.S. Hood. Courtesy of the National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, London 752
31.10 Manhours per ship for ships built in new yards in the U.S.A. From f. c. lane.
Ships for victory. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore (1951) 753
31.11 Gotaverken’s new shipyard at Ardendal, Norway. Courtesy of A. B. Gotaverken,
Goteborg, Sweden 755
31.12 U.K. shipping output. From j. R. parkinson, Economics of shipbuilding in the U.K.
Cambridge University Press (i960) 757
ILLUSTRATIONS
ILLUSTRATIONS XI
31.13 Ships launched in the U.K. From j. R. parkinson, ibid. 758
31. J4 Thermal efficiency of marine engines. From Transactions of the Royal Institution of 34. NAVIGATIONAL EQUIPMENT by e. vv. anderson
Naval Architects (i960) 760 34.1 Loop antenna with ‘sense’. From E. W. Anderson 840
34.2 The principle of operation of radio range. From E. W. Anderson 840
32. RAILWAYS by o. s. nock 34.3 Sperry Mk. II marine gyro-compass. Courtesy of Sperry Gyroscope Division 843
32.1 The Coronation, igii. Courtesy of British Rail 763 34.4 Radar picture of the Wash. Courtesy of R.S.R.E. Malvern 846
32.2 The Queen Philippa. Courtesy of P. J. T. Reed 764 34.5 Indicator for zero reader flight director. Courtesy of Sperry Gyroscope Division 852
32.3 One of the Chapelon rebuilt 4-6-2 locomotives of the Paris-Orleans Railway. From
O. S. Nock 764 35. SPACE TECHNOLOGY by Anthony r. michaelis
32.4 The Silver Link, 1935. Courtesy of British Rail 766 35.1 Firing a Carte rocket (solid fuel) and line across the wreck of the Mary Grey. Courtesy
32.5 A typical main line diesel-electric locomotive of the ‘first generation’. Courtesy of of Ronan Picture Library 860
G.E.C. Traction Ltd. 770 35.2 Professor Robert Goddard with his first gasoline and liquid oxygen rocket (1926).
32.6 One of the ‘Ae 4/4’ all-adhesion electric locomotives. Courtesy of Berner-Alpenbahn- Courtesy of NASA 861
Gesellschaft 773 33.3 Goddard’s more sophisticated launch platform (1935). Courtesy of NASA §61
32.7 Modern signalling. From O. S. Nock 782 35.4 Goddard working with his three mechanics (1939). Courtesy of NASA 862
32.8 A modern panel signal box. From O. S. Nock 783 35.5 A German A-4 or V-2 being test-fired 864
32.9 Mechanized marshalling yards. Courtesy of Canadian Pacific 784 35.6 Sputnik I seen in replica at a Russian exhibition. Courtesy of the Novosti Press
32.10 Wagon retarders. Courtesy of Westinghouse Brake and Signal Co. 786 Agency S67
35.7 Apollo 13 near the base of the Apennine Mountains on the Moon. (1971). Courtesy
33. AIRCRAFT AND THEIR OPERATION by peter w. brooks of NASA 868
33.1 The Wright Flyer, 1903. Crown copyright, Science Museum, London 790 35.8 Apollo 15’a Command and Service Modules in deep space. (1971). Courtesy of the
33.2 The Henri Farman III. 1909. Crown copyright. Science Museum, London 790 Space Division, North American Rockwell 868
33.3 The de Havilland D.H.4. Courtesy of the Imperial War Museum, London 795 35.9 Apollo 17 astronauts walking in the Taurus-Littrow area of the Moon (1972). Cour­
33.4 The Zeppelin L30, 1916. Courtesy of the Imperial War Museum, London 798 tesy of Grumman 868
33.5 The Fokker F.V.iiA-3m, 1925 801
33.6 Trends in transport aircraft cruising speeds. From P. W. Brooks 803 36. CIVIL ENGINEERING by i>. s. A. berrioge
33.7 Trends in transport aircraft operating costs. From P. W. Brooks 804 PART I: ROADS, BRIDGES, AND TUNNELS
36.1 (a) and (b). The Banihal Cart Road. From P. S. A. Berridge 874
33.8 The de Havilland Moth, 1925. Courtesy of Hawker Siddeley Aviation Ltd. 80s
36.2 The Indus Railway Bridge at Kotri. From P. S. A. Berridge 880
33.9 The Fokker D.Viii, igi8. Courtesy of the Imperial War Museum, London 809
36.3 The jhelum Valley Road Bridge at Kohala. From P. S. Berridge 884
33.10 The Junkers F13 809
36.4 The Attock Bridge. From P. S. A. Berridge 885
33.11 The Supermarine Spitfire. Courtesy of the Imperial War iVIuseum, London 813
36.5 The Lansdowne Bridge and the Ayub Arch. Courtesy of Nasir Khan 886
33.12 The Boeing B-ag. Courtesy of the Imperial War Museum, London 81S
36.6 The Golden Gate Bridge, San Francisco. Courtesy of Paul Popper Ltd. 888
33.13 The Messerschmitt Me 262, 1944. Courtesy of the Imperial War Museum, London 820 36.7 Reconstructing Brunei’s historic railway bridge across the Wye at Chepstow in 1962.
33.14 The Sikorsky V.S. 300A. Courtesy of Sikorsky 824 Courtesy of British Rail 888
33.15 The Douglas DC-3. Courtesy of the Douglas Aircraft Co. Inc. 826 36.8 The Severn Road Bridge under construction.F rom P. S. A. Berridge 888
33.16 The de Havilland Comet. Courtesy of De Havilland 827 36.9 The transporter across the Manchester Ship Canal and the River Mersey at Runcorn.
From P. S. A. Berridge 890
33.17 The Boeing 707. 1958. Courtesy of De Havilland 827
36.10 The rolling-lift bridge at Inchinnan, Scotland. From P. S. A. Berridge 890
33.18 Trends in development effort. From P. W. Brooks 831
36.11 The Royal Tw'eed Bridge at Berwick. From P. S. A. Berridge 893
33.19 Trends in manufacturing effort. From P. W. Brooks 831
36.12 The Gladesville Bridge near Sydney. Courtesy of the Australian News and Informa­
33.20 Development complexity. From P. W. Brooks 832 tion Bureau 893
33.21 Manufacturing complexity. From P. W. Brooks 833 36.13 A pontoon bridge of double and treble side-by-side Bailey girders. Courtesy of the
33.22 The MiG-is. 1947. Courtesy of the U.S. Airforce 833 Imperial War Museum, London 895
33.23 The B.A.C./Aerospaciale Concorde. Courtesy of British Aircraft Corporation Ltd. 83s 36.14 Failure in the building of the Shri Yuvraj Karan Singh Bridge across the River
Chenab. Courtesy of the Civil and Military Gazette 897
33.24 Hawker Siddeley Harrier. Courtesy of Hawker Siddeley Aviation Ltd. 83s
36.15 (a) and (b). 'The Rotherhithe Tunnel. Courtesy of the Greater London Council 902-3
XU ILLUSTRATIONS ILLUSTRATIONS XIU
36.16 Potters Bar Rail Tunnels. Courtesy of British Rail 904 38.5 Bourneville, England. Courtesy of Bourneville Village Trust 963
PART II: LAND RECLAMATION, CANALS, PORTS, AND HAR­ 38.6 Ebenezer Howard’s concept of a 'garden city’ 964
BOURS I 38.7 Paris. Courtesy of .Aerofilms 9^6
36.17 The Zuiderzee area 910 38.8 New A’ork. Courtesy of Aerofilms 9^6
36.18 Engineers close the gap between the two arms of the Zuiderzee barrier-dam in 1932. 38.9 Greater London Plan, 1944 9^9
Courtesy of the Royal Netherlands Embassy 910
38.10 Cumbernauld, Scotland. Courtesy of Cumbernauld Development Corporation 971
36.19 Plover Cove, a sketch map 9II
38.U The California Freeway, Los .Angeles. Courtesy of the United States Information
36.20 Building the Culebra cutting of the Panama Canal. Courtesy of Paul Popper Ltd. 9II Service 971
36.21 Vessels negotiating the locks in the Panama Canal. Courtesy of Paul Popper Ltd. 915 38.12 Glasgow. From Sir Colin Buchanan 972
36.22 The St Lawrence Seaway 916 38.13 Cologne. Courtesy of Camera Press 974
36.23 (a). Building the lock-walls for the St Lawrence Seaway. Courtesy of Paul Popper Ltd. 921 38.14 Cologne. From Sir Colin Buchanan 975
36.23 (b). The St Lambert Lock near Montreal. Courtesy of Paul Popper Ltd. 921 I 38.15 Stockholm. Courtesy of Camera Press 97b
36.24 Dover Harbour under construction, 1904. Courtesy of Coode & Partners 923 38.16 Stockholm. From Sir Colin Buchanan 977
36.25 Fishguard Harbour. Courtesy of British Rail 924 38.17 Brasilia 9^o
36.26 The site and layout of 'I'cma Harbour 926
40. THE INTER.N.AL COMBUSTION ENGINE by lynwood bryant
36.27 Port Talbot Harbour 927 ,
40.1 The engine of the first Mercedes, 1900. Courtesy of .Archiv-Geschichte-.Museum,
36.28 T'he Forth Bridge, the first ore carrier to berth at Port Talbot Harbour. Courtesy of
Daimler-Benz .A.G., Stuttgart 999
British 'Transport Docks Board 928
40.2 The Ford .Model '1' engine. Courtesy of the Ford .Archives, Henry Ford .Museum,
37. BUILDING .AND .ARCHITECTURE by r. j. .mainstone Dearborn, Michigan 1000
37.1 Reliance Building, Chicago, 1894-5. From R. J. Mainstone 933 40.3 .A pair of .Allis-Chalmers double-acting four-stroke gas engines, each driving a 750-
37.2 Crown Hall, Illinois Institute of Technology, under construction in 1955. Courtesy of kW generator, c. 1915. The fuel was natural gas. Courtesy of .Allis-Chalmers 1002
Hendrich Blessing, Chicago, U.S..A. 933 ' 40.4 .A portable electric power plant of 1918 powered by a one-cylinder kerosene-burning
37.3 .Swiss (Maillart—left) and .American (Turner—right) systems of slab reinforcement engine. Courtesy of the General Motors Corporation 1003
compared. From r. maillart, Zur Entwicklung der unterzuglosen Decke in der 40.5 -An early diesel engine built by Maschinenfabrik .Augsburg. Courtesy of M..A.N.
.Schweiz und in .Amerika. Schueizerische Dauzeitung, 87, (1926). 263 935 Werk .Augsburg 1005
I
37.4 Sliding formwork in use in the construction of Highpoint One, London, i934- From 40.6 .A typical marine diesel of the 1930s. Courtesy of M..A.N. Werk .Augsburg. 1007
.Avery Illustrations 939 40.7 The Gnome, a French air-cooled rotary engine. Courtesy of the Smithsonian Institu­
37.5 ‘Unit’ system of precast concrete framed construction; Conzelman patent drawing, tion, W’ashington lOII
1912. From J. L. I'ETERSO.N, History and development of precast concrete in the 40.8 The LiberU’, .An .American water-cooled \'-i2. Courtesy of the Smithsonian Institu­
United States, Journal of the American Concrete Institute, 25, 477 (1954). 940 tion, Washington 1013
37.6 Lever House, New York, completed 1952. From R. J. Mainstone 942 40.9 The Wright Cyclone R3350, an air-cooled radial engine of 1944. Courtesy of the
37.7 Morgan’s Road Junior School, Hertford, 1949. Courtesy of the Architectural Review 950 * Smithsonian Institution, Washington 1015
37.8 Boots’ Factory, Beeston, Nottingham, completed 1932. Courtesy of Sir Owen 40.10 The structure of a jet engine, a gas turbine for aircraft 1016
Williams and Partners 950 40.11 The first industrial gas turbine in the U.S..A. Courtesy of Brown, Boveri and Com­
37.9 Market Hall, .Algeciras, 1933. From R. J. .Mainstone 953 pany, Ltd., Baden, Switzerland 1021
37.10 Dorton .Arena, Raleigh, North Carolina, completed 1953. From R. J. Mainstone 953 ‘
41. THE STE.AM TURBINE by allen smith and t. dixon
37.11 Geodesic dome and other structures exhibited at the Museum of Modern .Art, New
41.1 The looo-kW turbo-generator supplied to Elberfeld, Germany (1900). Courtesy of
A'ork, in 1959. Courtesy of .Alexander Georges 953
C. .A. Parsons & Co. 1026
37.12 The Bauhaus, Dessau, 1925-6. Courtesy of UTlstein Bilderdienst 955
41.2 The 50 ooo-kW turbo-generator at Crawford .Avenue power station, Chicago (1923).
38. TOWN PL.ANNING by sir colin buchanan Courtesy of C. .A. Parsons & Co. 1026
38.1 Canberra. Courtesy of the .Australian News and Information Service 959 '• 41-3 Cut-away view of turbine. Courtesy of C. .A. Parsons & Co. 1027
38.2 Bath, an aerial view from the east. Courtesy of .Aerofilms 960 41.4 .An example of a large marine turbine and single reduction gearing from the Maheno.
Courtesy of Richardson Westgarth & Co. Ltd. 1032
38.3 Preston. Courtesy of .Aerofilms 961
38.4 London—going out of town, by George Cruickshank. Courtesy of Mary Evans 42. M.ACHINE TOOLS by Robert s. woodbury
Picture Library 963 * 42.1 Johansson gauge blocks. Crown copyright. Science Museum, London 1040
r
XIV ILLUSTRATIONS ILLUSTRATIONS XV
42.2 The original Norton grinding machine (1900). Courtesy of the Norton Grinding Co. 1040 46.10 Cross-section of a cavity magnetron (the applied magentic field is emergent from the
paper) iio8
45. THE GENERATION, DISTRIBUTION, AND UTILIZATION OF 46.11 The push-pull amplifier 1109
ELECTRICITY by brian bowers 46.12 The triode valve used as modulator in a radio transmitter 1110
45.1 Part of the turbine hall of Battersea A power station in 1933. Crown copyright. 46.13 .A ring modulator using solid-state rectifiers 1110
Science Museum, London 1072
46.14 .A valve reactor circuit for frequency-modulation 1111
45.2 Joints from the 10 000-volt cable made by S. Z. de Ferranti. Crown copyright.
46.15 (a). A series connection of resistance, inductance, and capacitance, (b). Van Ryssel-
Science Museum, London 1075
berghe’s separation of high and low frequency channels, 1882. (c). \'an Rysselberghe’s
45.3 An oil-hlled paper-insulated single-core cable rated at 380 kV. Crown copyright. low-pass filter of 1883. (d). Equivalent-circuit representation of a triode valve 1113
Science Museum, London 1076
46.16 The dev'elopment of complex circuit structures and filters 1115
45.4 .An early main switch showing (left) the open position, (centre) the position during
46.17 The earliest transistors, (a). Point contact, (b). Germanium n-p-n grown junction.
opening or closing, and (right) the closed position. Crown copyright. Science Museum,
(c). Germanium p-n-p alloyed 1119
London 1079
46.18 .A continuously variable air capacitor, c. 1920 (known as a condenser at that time) 1122
43.5 A 10 000 V to 2400 V transformer, designed by S. Z. de Ferranti. Crown copyright.
Science Museum, London 1081
45.6 (a). .A typical carbon filament lamp for domestic use (1901). Courtesy of G.E.C. 47. DOMESTIC -APPLIANCES by g. b. l. wilson
(b) . .An early tungsten filament lamp (1910). Crown copyright. Science Museum, 47.1 Booth’s vacuum cleaner, 1904. Crown copyright. Science Museum, London 1130
London 47.2 Two early vacuum cleaner advertisements by John Hassell. Crown copyright.
(c) . One of the first coiled filament lamps (1913). Crown copyright. Science Museum, Science Museum, London. 1132
London 47.3 Crompton’s original electric fires, 1893. Crown copyright. Science Museum, London 1133
(d) . .A lamp, pumped and sealed from the cap end, made about 1950. Crown copy­
47.4 .A two-bulb electric fire, c. 1914. Crown copyright. Science Museum, London 1134
right, Science Museum, London 1084
47-5 A gas cooker of 1923. Crown copyright. Science Museum, London H37
43.7 (a). The experimental induction motor made by Tesla (1888) and (b) the rotor of the
Tesla induction motor. Crown copyright. Science Museum, London 1086-7 47.6 The all-enamelled ‘Mainservor’ gas cooker of the early 1930s. Crown copyright.
Science Museum, London U37
43.8 The first British-made electric drill, 1914. Crown copyright. Science Museum,
London 1088 47.7 .A free-standing, solid fuel, enamelled room heater. Crown copyright. Science Museum,
London 1138
46. ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING by j. r. tillman and d. g. tucker 47.8 The ‘.Aga’ solid fuel cooker of 1946. Crown copyright. Science .Museum, London 1139
46.1 (a). A radio detector circuit using a Fleming diode 47.9 -A wooden washing-machine, c. 1920. Crown copyright. Science Museum, London 1141
(b) . A bias circuit to improve sensitivity 47.10 -An electric washing-machine, i960. Crown copyright. Science Museum, London 1141
(c) . The current/voltage curve for a diode 47.11 -A geyser, 1914. Crown copyright. Science Museum, London 1143
(d) . The principle of operation
47.12 A refrigerator, 1932. Crown copyright. Science Museum, London 1145
(e) . The Fleming thermionic diode (1903), in a wooden stand. Crown copyright,
47.13 -An automatic tea-making machine, 1904. Crown copyright. Science Museum,
.Science Museum, London t®94
London 1148
46.2 The de Forest audion valve. Crown copyright. Science Museum, London
46.3 (a). -A radio receiver using a triode valve
48. COMPUTERS by tom m.argerison
(b) . An amplifier using a triode valve
(c) . Typical characteristic curves of a small triode 48.1 Napier’s bones. Crown copyright. Science Museum, London 1152
(d) . The French or Army ‘R’ triode valve, c. 1913. Crown copyright. Science Museum, 48.2 The carrying mechanism used by Pascal for his calculating machine. Crown copyright.
London. 1096 Science Museum, London 1160
46.4 (a). .A radio receiver with reaction or retroaction, i.e. with positive feedback, (b). An 48.3 The Leibniz stepped wheel. Crown copyright. Science Museum, London 1160
oscillation generator 1099 48.4 Arrangement of the mechanism in the Leibniz calculating machine. Crown copyright.
46.3 A directly heated triode 1100 Science Museum, London 1160
46.6 (a). .An amplifier circuit with two pentodes, (b). Curves fora typical power pentode. 1103 48.5 The inside of a Thomas de Colmar calculating machine showing the stepped wheels.
46.7 (a). A circuit for a simple relaxation oscillator, (b). The variation of V with time. Crown copyright. Science Museum, London 1163
(c). The use of a pentode valve to give linear sweep of voltage, (d). An expanded 48.6 The Ohdner pin wheel showing principle of construction. Crown copyright. Science
portion of the sweep waveform for a circuit with pentode valve. 1104 Museum, London 1165
46.8 The photoemissive response of the alkali metals 1104 48.7 'The construction of the pin wheel of the Brunsviga machine. Crown copyright.
46.9 .A cathode ray tube with electrostatic focusing and deflection 1107 Science Museum, London 1165
±
29
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE WORLD
TRANSPORT MARKET
K, M. GWILLIAM
The first half of the twentieth century was an age of radical technical
substitution in transport. For inland transport road replaced rail in
the dominant role, while for international movement air largely
replaced sea transport. In both domestic and international sectors the sub­
stitution began, and has been most pronounced, in the passenger market. For
freight the substitution has been less complete; the traditional modes have
retained, and look like continuing to retain, a dominant share of the long­
distance movement of bulk traffic (Fig. 29.1).
The reasons for these changes are not hard to find. For a large proportion
of short- and medium-distance passenger journeys the private car became
more comfortable, more convenient, quicker and, if multiple occupancy
could be achieved, cheaper than rail transport. For the longer international
journeys the advantage of air transport in speed became sufficiently over­
whelming to overcome disadvantages of cost, and possibly of comfort.
Coastal shipping Coastal shipping
and inland and inland
Pipelines waterways 3-6 Pipelines--------, waterways 19 8
0 3
16-6
Road: Private Road: Private Road: Private Road: Public
and public 79-5 and public 49-3 56 4 27 7
Freight per cent tons Freight per cent tons miles Per cent passenger miles
Fig. zg.i. The domestic transport market in Britain, i960.
692 DEVELOPMENT OF THE WORLD TRANSPORT MARKET INTERNATIONAL TRANSPORT BY SEA AND AIR 693
One final point should be noted about these main trends. Both air and operation, the performance of the best ships built in the first decade of this
road transport are viewed as ‘superior’ goods in the markets in which they century was not of an entirely different order from those which still sail. For
are sold, having more highly preferred qualitative characteristics than their instance, the Mauretania, built in 1907, was a vessel of over 30000 tons
main competitors. For air transport this is reflected in the higher price per capable of 25 knots.
passenger mile than for other modes. For private road transport this is
reflected, not in the cost of the marginal journey, which has always been The organization of the shipping industry. The dry cargo trades have been
competitive, but in the costs of car ownership. Hence, the shift between divided between two different kinds of shipping operation, ‘liners’ and
modes depended not only on the relative shifts in technological advantage ‘tramps’. A liner is a ship plying a fixed route according to predetermined
but also on the increase in income levels during the period, allowing the schedules, offering space (for cargoes or passengers) at fixed rates. These
purchase of the ‘superior’ goods. services were developed in the third quarter of the nineteenth century as
Despite these changes, both in technology and in income levels, neither combined cargo and passenger carriers. From 1875 onwards, competing liner
railways nor shipping have lost all their traditional markets. A major problem owners began to associate in ‘conferences’ to limit competition in particular
facing governments has been to manage the process of adaptation to technical trades or on a particular route. By the use of tying systems, such as deferred
change in such a way that all modes are able to find their proper economic rebates or discriminatory rates for customers contracting to send all their
roles. Moreover, as the demands for transport changed over time govern­ freight by member vessels, the conferences attempted to secure stability in a
ments have been faced with the perennial problem of attempting to ensure basically unstable industry. Although some stability does appear to have
that the prevailing controls continued to adjust properly for the ‘externali­ been achieved, and the conferences also helped to protect unsubsidized U.K.
ties’ involved in the provision of transport and did not simply constrain shipping in the inter-war years, it also appears to have had some unfavourable
efficient adaptation. effects. The system dampened profit-earning capacity in times of boom,
This chapter is divided into two parts. In the first, we consider the way in removed much of the competitive incentive to efficiency, and, ultimately to
which changes in world trade and movement-patterns have interacted with the detriment of conference members, protected existing technology against
technological developments to revolutionize international transport by sea developments. By 1900 most of the liner companies had amalgamated into
and air. In the second, we are concerned with national and international land large shipping groups and were members of conferences. With the e.xception
transport systems, with special reference to the experience of the developed of the North Atlantic trade, where tramps retained their hold, by 1913 most
Western economies. of the cargo exported from the U.K. was handled by the shipping confer­
ences [i].
In contrast to the regular service of the liner, the ‘tramp’ is usually engaged
I. INTERNATIONAL TRANSPORT BY SEA AND AIR to load a full cargo between any two ports. The charter is normally by the
The bulk of international trade of the late nineteenth century was the sea­ trip, and the ship searches peripatetically for continued employment. Both
borne British Imperial trade, which towards the end of the century began to freight rates and freight capacity have tended to be more volatile for tramp
be revolutionized by a number of technological innovations. Although these than for liner shipping.
innovations—the conversion from wooden construction of ships to iron and In the nineteenth century tramps were general cargo vessels, inferior
then steel, the change of propulsion from sail to steam, and the introduction either in construction or age to the liner. This picture has changed as a result
of the triple-expansion engine—all began in the nineteenth century, the of specialization. The employment of the tramp has been stabilized by pro­
main phase of technical change took place in the two decades before the First gressive specialisation in the oil trade in the inter-war period and in dry cargo
World War (Ch. 31). Of the U.K. registered tonnage in 1913 two-thirds had carriers after 1950, and by time charters. By i960 the world tramp fleet had
been built since 1900 and 85 per cent since 1895. Despite the fact that the an average vessel size of nearly 11000 tons and an average speed of 12 knots;
subsequent change to diesel engines was to produce great economies in ship some 25 per cent of this fleet was specialized in its use.
J1
6q4 development of the world transport market international transport by sea and air 695
The development of seaborne trade. The value of world trade grew by about still had the largest fleet, her share of world shipping had fallen to about a
66 per cent between 1900 and 1914, and although this was a period of rising quarter.
prices, there is little doubt that the volume of trade also grew substantially. The composition of the world shipping fleet in this period was also very
The volume of world shipping increased by about 25 per cent during the significantly affected by changes in the pattern of trade. British coal exports
same period. fell from a high point of 84-5m. tons in 1923 to 38-2m. tons in 1938, and the
This development was interrupted by the First World War, which cut total volume of all British exports was almost exactly halved during the same
world seaborne trade by nearly 20 per cent. Although it increased by 65 per period. The basic traffic on which the British tramp shipping fleet depended
cent during the 1920s seaborne trade fell back to the 1913 level during the thus diminished just at the time when the world shipping market as a whole
Depression. The 1929 peak was not reached again until 1937. Shipping ton­ was most depressed. If the British shipping fleet was to maintain its overall
nage was less volatile during the period, rising steadily until 1931, when it share of world seaborne trade it had to find new, non-British, traffics.
stood at 150 per cent of its 1913 level. Thus, in 1932 the world seaborne trade The one obvious growth area was the world oil trade. International move­
was at about the 1913 level while shipping tonnage was nearly 50 per cent ments of oil by sea rose from about 14m. tons per annum before 1914 to 84m.
greater. This disparity had two significant consequences. First, 20 per cent tons in 1937, from 5 per cent to 25 per cent of world seaborne trade. The
of the world fleet was laid up. Secondly, and despite this, freight rates were world tanker fleet grew in size from i-5m. tons in 1914 to iO’4m. tons in 1938,
pushed to very low levels, 25 per cent below pre-war rates. The inter-war of which over half was owned by the oil companies, more than one-third by
period was thus a very difficult time for the world shipping industry. Norway, and less than one-fifth by British nationals. Thus, the chief trends
in world trade led to radical changes both in the composition of the world
Ownership of the world shipping fleet. British-owned shipping dominated fleet and its ownership. Britain’s failure to retain her share by developing in
world sea trade before the First World War. Despite growing competition the tanker business was due partly to the higher wage costs incurred by the
from Japan in the Pacific and Germany in the Atlantic, in 1914 the British British fleet, but mainly due to the failure of British shipping interests to
fleet represented 39 per cent of the world fleet of ships over 100 tons and over recognize quickly enough that by the inter-war period the motor ship had
40 per cent of sea-going steam and motor ships. This was nearly four times superseded the steamship as an economic vessel.
the size of the next largest fleet, that of Germany. The growth of the fleets of the U.S.A., Japan, and Italy was to some extent
British dominance sprang from a number of sources. An extensive colonial aided by government subsidy. But changes in the composition of the world
trading policy ensured steady employment for the fleet. Britain had well- fleet cannot be attributed solely to this cause. In the case of Japan, low labour
established shore facilities and was greatly aided by the technological lead costs also contributed significantly to the growth; and there are e.xamples
which she had obtained in the late nineteenth century in building iron steam­ both of heavily subsidized fleets which did not grow (France and Germany)
ships. Above all, Britain’s dominance was founded on the export of coal, and unsubsidized fleets which did grow (Norway). Responsiveness to techni­
which accounted for a quarter of all tonnage moved by sea before 1914. cal change was almost certainly of at least equal significance in explaining
The First World War changed this picture substantially. The U.K. and the changing patterns [2].
Germany between them lost 4’5m. tons of capacity between 1914 and 1919
(about 10 per cent of the world total), while the U.S.A. increased her own Shipping after igsg. Despite wartime losses of about 32m. tons, the total
fleet by over lom. tons between 1914 and 1920. Japan nearly doubled its world fleet had increased from 6i-4m. tons in 1939 to 72*9m. tons in 1946.
fleet during the war, while France and Italy benefited considerably in repara­ With the one exception of the U.S.A., the leading shipping nations of the
tions from the German and Austro-Hungarian fleets. Although the size of pre-war period suffered both relative and absolute decline. The U.S.A,
the U.S. fleet declined and that of the British fleet was stagnant in the inter­ increased its share of the world fleet from 14 2 per cent in 1939 to a staggering
war period, a number of nations (Norway, Greece, Japan, Italy, and the 56-1 per cent in 1946, although its share fell by 20 per cent in the next two
Netherlands) increased their fleet size substantially. By 1939, although Britain vears and continued to decline thereafter. In the first full decade after the