Table Of ContentEDITORIAL BOARD
Chairman
Lieutenant General Dr Adrian TONEA
Members
Academician Dr Dan BERINDEI
Major General Dr BEng Teodor INCICAŞ
Air Flotilla General Vasile TOADER
Brigadier General Corneliu POSTU
Air Flotilla General George SPIRIDONESCU
Brigadier General Marian BOTEA
Brigadier General Dr BEng Constantin NEGREA
Brigadier General Iulian BERDILĂ
Brigadier General BEng Nicolae MARIA-ZAMFIRESCU
Brigadier General Dr Dragoş-Dumitru IACOB
Brigadier General Dr BEng Costică POSTOLACHE
Major General Ovidiu-Liviu UIFĂLEANU
PUBLISHER
Air Flotilla General Dr Viorel PANĂ
Vice-admiral Dr Alexandru MÎRŞU THE DEFENCE STAFF
Scientific Reviewers
Brigadier General Prof Dr Gheorghe CALOPĂREANU
Order “Meritul Cultural”
Colonel (r.) Prof Dr Ion GIURCĂ
Colonel Prof Dr Daniel GHIBA in the rank of “Knight”,
Lieutenant Colonel Senior Lecturer
F Category
Dr Adrian LESENCIUC HIGH ROYAL DECREE NO. 3663
Captain (N) Dr Gheorghe-Cristian BOGDAN
THROUGH WHICH “ROMÂNIA MILITARĂ” – “Promotion of Culture”
Dr Alexandra SARCINSCHI
(Presidential Decree no. 646
Dr Şerban CIOCULESCU BECOMES THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL
on 24.08.2004)
OF THE GREAT GENERAL STAFF
EDITORIAL STAFF
Editor-in-Chief
Lieutenant Colonel Mircea BARAC
ROMANIAN
MILITARY
THINKING
Journal of Military Science and Security Studies Published
by the Defence Staf
Founded in 1864 under the name �România Militară�
– new series, year XIV –
ISSN Print: 1841-4451
ISSN Online: 1842-824X
Romanian Military Thinking is a scientfc journal
with acknowledged prestge in the feld
of �Military Science, Intelligence and Public Order”, in keeping
with the evaluaton carried out by the Natonal Council for Titles,
Diplomas and Certfcates (CNATDCU) in 2011
(htp://www.cnatdcu.ro/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/reviste-militare1.pdf)
Romanian Military Thinking Journal is included in the Journal Master List
of the INdeX COPerNICuS INterNatIONal aNd eBSCO�s
Internatonal Security & Counter-Terrorism Reference Center databases
A LegAcy since 1864
The Romanian Armed Forces road to modernity started in 1859,
once the United Principalites General Staf Corps, currently the
R O M AN I AN
M I L I T A R Y Defence Staf, was established.
T H IN K IN G Soon afer it, in 1864, a group of nine captains, graduates of the frst
series of the Ofcer Cadet School in Bucharest, took the initatve to
develop a “military science, art and history journal” named “România
Militară/Military Romania”.
The initators of the publicaton – G. Slăniceanu (Captain, Chief
of the Engineer Batalion), A. Gramont (Staf Captain), G. Borănescu
(Engineer Captain), G. Anghelescu (Staf Captain), A. Anghelescu E. Pencovici
(Artllery Captain), E. Arion (Artllery Captain), E. Boteanu (Staf
(Staf Captain)
Captain), E. Pencovici (Staf Captain) and C. Barozzi (Engineer Captain) –,
educated not only in Romania but also abroad, were inspired by the
necessity to develop a substantal theoretcal actvity in the Romanian C. Barozzi E. Boteanu
Army too.
(Engineer Captain) (Staf Captain)
1
The journal manifesto , included in the frst issue, which appeared
on 15 February 1864, contained innovatve ideas and approaches that
were meant to:
�- contribute to the organisaton of our military system the
Legislatve Chamber is about to decide upon soon;
- assemble and examine the Country old military insttutons that
had made for the glory of Romania for several centuries and ensured
our existence;
- explore, in the absence of any military study, all the aspects related
to the Army training, the most solid basis of the armed forces;
- get the Romanian Troops well-informed about the military events
in the world;
G. Anghelescu
- join eforts to work concertedly and whole-heartedly to develop
(Staf Captain)
and strengthen the edifce that is meant to ensure the future of our
2
country� .
G. Borănescu G. Slăniceanu
“România Militară” was an independent publicaton, under the aegis
of the War Ministry, and it ceased to appear in 1866 as there were no (Engineer Captain) (Captain, Chief
sufcient funds and subscribers. The publicaton was resumed in 1891, fo eht e renign
about a quarter of a century later, also as the result of the initatve of a Batalion)
group of ofcers in the Great General Staf who intended to “reproduce
the serious studies on the organisaton, strategy and
3
art of commanding troops under any circumstances” .
Shortly afer it, by the Royal Decree no. 3663 issued
on 8 December 1897, “România Militară” became
the “Great General Staf ofcial publicaton”.
1
Din trecutul României Militare cu prilejul aniversării a 75 de ani de la apariția ei în viața
armatei. 1864-1939, Bucureșt, 1939, p. 31.
2
Ibidem, p. 32.
3
România Militară, no. 1, 1981, p. 6. E. Arion A. Anghelescu
(Artllery Captain) (Artllery Captain)
English version by Diana Cristana LUPU.
No. 1-2/2018 2 3
the Gândirea militară românească cOnTenTs
Journal Awards
EHT NAMOR NAI DEMRA SECROF – YEK ROTCA NI EHT NEC YRUT
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NO I FT O A S I L A B O L G
“Brigadier General “Division General oI na EIHCSIM 120 EHT ESU FO RIA REWOP NIAGA TS MSIRORET
Constantin Hîrjeu“ Ştefan Fălcoianu“ NAIZTIWESUALC MSI NA D -TSOP NAIZTIWESUALC .MSI
TUOBA EHT N DE ROF A MGIDARAP TFIHS NIHTIW EHT NAMOR NAI
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aecriM N�T ESA 104 OD EW LITS N DE ?SREPORTARAP
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EHT -TSOP TIXERB NAEPORUE NU NOI : TAHW ERA RUO LACITILOPOEG
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T A–NE UH R T G NO I NAISUR NOITULOVER FO 119 7 NA D STI NOC NEUQES SEC
NEC NET NLAI -nitnelaV oI na NAC�UF 269 NO EHT NAMOR NAI -NAISUR NORF T – NA -OLG NOXAS NOITPECREP S –
No. 1-2/2018 4 5 C ONT ENT S
The romanian armed Forces
– Key actor in the Century of Most i mportant National Transformations
rOMaNiaN
MiliTarY
THiNKiNG
THe ROMAniAn ARMeD FORces 018 is an emotionally charged year for all Romanians, irrespective of living
2in the country or abroad, irrespective of the historical region they belong
– Key AcTOR in THe cenTURy
to, and irrespective of their religious convictions. The fact that today we can talk
OF MOsT iMPORTAnT nATiOnAL about a present and future of Romania is the direct consequence of traditions and
TRAnsFORMATiOns – reputations built over time, and especially in the past century, with the contribution
of all relevant actors: the people representing the Romanian society as a whole,
Lieutenant General Dr Adrian TONEA alongside all national or private institutions, regardless of their feld of competence.
Deputy Chief of the Defence Staf
The Romanian Armed Forces have been one of the most dynamic and active
actors in the Romanian nation development process. The lessons learned during the
course of a century represent the foundation on which the present is based and the
future of one of the elite institutions of our country – the Romanian Armed Forces – is
built.
Even though the physical time will not be different from other years, in
psychological terms, an anniversary like this has the role of coalescing people and
energies to mark an important stage in the evolution of the Romanians, as a people,
as well as of Romania as a national and independent state.
he end of the 19th century, the entire 20th century, and the frst two decades
Tof the 21st century represent, for our national history, a period during which
Romania has accomplished a series of historic desiderata: full independence,
nation-state unity, the status of a free and democratic nation, the integration in the
greatest economic, political and social union – the European Union, as well as the
membership of the most important political-military alliance – NATO. During the
same period, the Romanian society has emancipated, the institutions proper to a
modern state have been established and consolidated, and the armed forces have
become one of the most credible and reliable institutions of the Romanian state.
In the mentioned historical interval, the modern, independent and reunited
within its basic borders Romania has been achieved, in stages, through sustained
efforts and numerous sacrifces. All areas of society – economic, social, political,
cultural and military have undergone essential and overall transformations,
logically subsumed under those in Europe and worldwide, resulting in Romania
being included in the international relations of the time.
Naturally, as the state has been strengthened and the Romanian political-strategic
goals have been outlined – the achievement of independence, the accomplishment of
national unity, and the consolidation of democracy –, the Romanian armed forces,
English version by Diana Cristana LUPU. one of the oldest organisations and holders of valuable traditions in our history, have
No. 1-2/2018 EdiTOrial 6 7
The R o manian Armed F or ce s Lieutenant General Dr Adrian TONEA
– Key Act or in the Century o f M o st I m p ortant National Trans f or mati ons
adapted to meet the realities of the time, demonstrating that they are a representative in terms of not only doctrinal conception evolution but also organisation and
institution of the Romanian people, permanently serving the nation. functioning. As servicemen we are aware that the security environment has always
The unifcation of the Romanian Principalities, Moldova and Wallachia, in 1859, been unpredictable, and the modernisation of our military capabilities is a proof of
RO MANIAN and the achievement of Romania’s independence, in 1877, brought to the forefront adaptation. Nevertheless, we also have the responsibility to anticipate.
M IL ITAR Y
T H IN K ING of the Romanian society the desiderata of liberating the national territories from urrently, we can state that a well-articulated military system, based on
the domination of the Austro-Hungarian and Russian empires, and of reuniting Cthe principles of the North Atlantic Alliance functioning, namely collective
those territories with Romania to form a national, unique and independent state. defence, cooperative security and crisis management, is in place and in the process
The actions conducted by the Romanian state governing bodies in order to meet the of streamlining. Within this system, new and modern elements, in full accordance
national goals could not have been possible without the Romanian Armed Forces with the trends in the development of universal military art, are integrated and
support. Only by relying on this instrument of power was the political class able to adapted to the traditional elements, accumulated and tested in practice during the
address and sustain the national interests with dignity in the international contexts battles conducted by the Romanians for their liberty and unity.
proper to the bloodiest century in the history of humanity, a century dominated, Iraq, Afghanistan, Bosnia-Herzegovina are the most relevant examples for the
during its early years, by the intensifcation of the contradictions between the great way in which the troops belonging to the Romanian armed forces make considerable
powers, which resulted in the two world wars in which Romania could not remain efforts to support and actively participate in the reassurance and deterrence
neutral. measures taken at NATO level. The troops belonging to all three services – land,
By virtue of the reality and in accordance with Romania’s national interests, air and naval –, logistically supported and coordinated by the Defence Staff jointly
the Romanian armed forces were those that put the political decisions into practice, cooperate, at national and international level, to accomplish the assigned missions.
sacrifcing for the survival, sustainment and consolidation of the Romanian state, Thus, the Romanian armed forces demonstrate that they have adapted to the new
even though the national military policy had and continues to have a profoundly international context, contributing to strengthening the role played by Romania as a
defensive character. credible security provider, through participating in missions under the aegis of NATO
The war for liberation and national reunifcation between 1916 and 1919 and the EU.
marked maybe the most important stage in the defnition of the Romanian armed All the mentioned achievements would not be possible without the total
forces as an institution of national importance. The Great Unifcation in 1918, based involvement of each and every serviceman, and without a coherent strategy meant
on the sacrifce of almost one million national heroes and acknowledged by the to tailor the Romanian armed forces to meet the current requirements in all aspects:
international treaties signed in 1919-1920, mainly resulted in Romania becoming technical, organisational and doctrinal.
one of the unitary and independent states in Europe. o conclude, I would emphasise the fact that, throughout time, the awareness
hroughout history, objective causes – generated especially by the social- Tof the important role played by the armed forces, the military system as a
Teconomic development of the country in certain moments –, as well as whole, to defend the national territory integrity and to achieve the Romanians
subjective ones, predominantly related to the international context and the treaties national unity has made possible a constant consensus among the Romanian society
to which Romania was party, prevented the Romanian armed forces from fully economic, social and political forces with regard to the necessity to consolidate the
becoming what they desired and could be. Nevertheless, starting from the lessons Romanian state military power.
learned during the War of Independence in 1877-1878, continuing with the ones The anniversary of the Great Unifcation centenary should be a moment
learned from the two world confagrations and, more recently, participating of refection for all those directly or indirectly involved in the military system
alongside the partners in NATO in the complex process meant to provide security at development process. An anniversary does not represent a signifcant change in the
the Alliance level, the Romanian Armed Forces have always been a point of balance, history of a nation, but it should mark the 100-year evolution since a turning point
the heart of the Romanian nation itself. Constructively adopting the innovative in history as it was the year 1918.
ideas of military thinking at European and global level specifc to each period, the
It should be emphasised that transition entails commitment, passion,
Romanian Armed Forces have become, in time, in the perception of public opinion,
renunciation and sacrifces as well as understanding. Trust and respect, whether
the promoter of values such as integrity, devotion, rigour, responsibility or excellence.
individual, collective, institutional or national, are achieved only through sustained
A dynamic body, permanently undergoing transformation and adapting, the efforts, sacrifces, as well as vision and correctly oriented strategies.
military system has made impressive qualitative leaps in each stage of its existence,
No . 1 - 2 / 2 0 1 8 EDITOR IAL 8 9
Non-linear Warfare vs. Hy brid Warfare
rOMaNiaN
MiliTarY
THiNKiNG
nOn-LineAR WARFARe Opening Consideratons
Vs. HyBRiD WARFARe Many military analysts use the term “hybrid warfare” to characterise
what happened in Ukraine in 2014. The concept was coined by
Dr Marius Tit POTÎRNICHE Hybrid warfare
Frank Hofman, a former US ofcer with a long career in the Navy – “range of
Centre for Defence and Security Strategic Studies,
“Carol I” Natonal Defence University, Bucureşt and researcher at the Center for Strategic Research at the Natonal diferent modes
of warfare,
Defense University in Washington, DC, as a “range of diferent modes
including
of warfare, including conventonal capabilites, irregular tactcs conventonal
capabilites,
and formatons, terrorist acts including indiscriminate violence and
irregular tactcs
1
coercion, and criminal disorder” . Moreover, Hofman determined
and formatons,
that hybrid warfare “can be conducted by both states and a variety of terrorist acts
2 including
non-state actors” .
indiscriminate
The concept has quickly found a level of acceptance within NATO, violence and
This artcle aims to bring the concept of “hybrid warfare” into focus by coercion,
becoming the subject of numerous artcles, studies and conferences.
interpretng some of its defning elements from the perspectve of the Russian and criminal
3
Specialised publicatons in Russia present the concept as being of a
armed forces. The fact that this term is used diferently in Russia than it is used disorder”.
in the West should bring about insightul debates. We can understand our Western nature, with no connecton to Russian military theory and
opponent by analysing them through their concepts and not through certain 4
practce , and consider it only a new way of expressing a military
terms that sound all-encompassing and intriguing for us. More importantly,
this kind of warfare is given certain meanings that have nothing to do with acton, in keeping with the current circumstances. The artcles on this
Russian military thinking on this subject. The “litle green man”, besides topic show that many of the hybrid warfare analyses do not atain the Hybrid warfare
winning in a frst confict, the purely military one, in the Crimea, is about to 5 - “can be
desired essence and consistency and that this concept fails to capture
win the ideological one, because most military actons today have a “hybrid” conducted by
feature. The defning elements of the Russian concept are interpreted and the specifc, politcal and informaton manipulaton employed by both states and
exemplifed so that the well-informed reader should understand the diference a variety of non-
Russia in support of its objectves.
and the essence of the concept. state actors”.
There is a need for a concept that is beter tailored to the range
Keywords: hybrid warfare, asymmetric warfare, deep operatons, refexive of actons behind this type of war when describing Russia’s military
control, actve measures.
capabilities, perhaps one present in Russian military thinking
1 st
Frank G. Hofman, Confict in the 21 Century: The Rise of Hybrid Wars, Potomac Insttute for
Policy Studies Arlington, 2007, pp. 7-8.
2
Ibid.
3
Damien Van Puyvelde, Hybrid War – Does It Even Exist?, in NATO Review (2015), retrieved
on 26.10.2017, htps://www.nato.int/docu/review/2015/Also-in-2015/hybrid-modern-future-
warfare-russia-ukraine/EN/.
4
Andrew Korybko, Hybrid Wars: The Indirect Adaptve Approach to Regime Change, Project of
the Insttute for Strategic Studies and Predictons, People’s Friendship University of Russia,
Moscow, 2015, pp. 9-10.
English version by Iulia SINGER. 5
Ibid, pp. 68-69.
No. 1-2/2018 MiliTarY SCiENCE 10 11
Non - L i n ear Warfare vs . Hy bri d WarMfarae rius Titi POTÎRNICHE
and not one expressing a purely Western vision. It is believed that and Vladimir Triandafllov, inspired General Gerasimov and, through
General Valery Gerasimov conceived some elements of this type of their theories, made the doctrine developed by him very consistent.
6
war in 2013. The debates between those who considered the vision Deep operatons were based on the idea that the most efectve way
ROMANI AN
of the Chief of the Russian General Staf as a general, descriptve to defeat an enemy was to launch simultaneous blows throughout the
MILIT AR Y
THINKING 8
vision of the operatonal environment or as an intelligent means of entre depth of their operatonal defence .
communication of a doctrinal concept resulted in articles in some Unlike Western military thinking, the theory of deep operatons Deep operatons,
in the Russian
of the most diverse publicatons, the concept of “hybrid warfare” does not focus on identfying a single centre of gravity and then
understanding
gaining all-encompassing new meanings. The term used by the directng the entre efort on destroying it. Deep operatons, in the of the term,
In Russian
involve atacking
specialised Russians is “non-linear warfare” and is in fact an atempt to catch up Russian understanding of the term, involve atacking a variety of
a variety of
literature, the
with the realites of the modern war the USA, for example, has faced targets whose neutralisaton or destructon can ensure success in the
targets whose
hybrid war is
considered to for more than a decade in Iraq, Afghanistan and elsewhere7. On the operaton9. The breakthrough enables the mobile forces to penetrate neutralisaton or
destructon can
be an “indirect other hand, in the Russian specialised literature, the hybrid war is deep into the enemy defence tactcal or operatonal dispositon, thus
ensure success in
war”, Russia
considered to be an “indirect war”, Russia being the one that has to succeeding in annihilatng dispositon elements and encircling forces,
the operaton.
being the one
that has to face face the hybrid war triggered by the Western powers. By comparing resultng in their collapse or prolongaton of isolaton, while mobile
the hybrid war the views expressed in various specialised journals in the West, where
forces could advance towards achieving certain strategic objectves10.
triggered by the
there is a true “invasion” of artcles on hybrid war, with Russian military Over tme, this form of manoeuvre has become an important doctrine
Western powers.
leaders’ statements on how to conduct a future war, we conclude that
that underpinned the way in which the Russian armed forces have
the way Russia and the West understand the concept is diferent. The
been organised.
key word that describes the hybrid war as perceived by the Western
As part of the ongoing military modernisaton process, Russia
world is “variety” (of means), while the key word to describe the non-
ataches great importance to the development of its aeronautcal
linear war paradigm from the Russian point of view is “penetraton/
and airborne forces. This provides Russia with quick deployment As part of the
The key word breakthrough”. capabilites that can intmidate the countries near its borders, and ongoing military
that describes modernisaton
What can help is the understanding of the fact that certain elements
in the event of a conventonal confict, it can exploit the success of
the hybrid war process, Russia
st
that are considered new are based on old concepts, updated for the 21 11
as perceived land forces by atacking the depth of the enemy territory . The 2014 ataches great
by the Western century. Specifcally, the key elements of General Gerasimov’s doctrine importance to
editon of the Military Doctrine of the Russian Federaton requires more
world is the development
are derived from the concepts of deep operatons, actve measures
“variety” efectve coordinaton of state resources to adapt the armed forces to of its
(of means), and the theory of refexive control, concepts developed during the the new concepts of acton. In a paragraph describing the operatonal aeronautcal and
while the key Cold War and improved, updated for the 21st century. airborne forces.
environment, it is stated that “... the integrated employment of
word to describe
the non-linear military force and political, economic, information and other
Deep Operatons
war paradigm
non-military measures” and “... exertng simultaneous pressure on
from the Russian
Georgii Isserson, one of the supporters of deep operatons theory,
point of view is
considered an outstanding contributor to military art, along with other 8 Charles Pickar, Tactcal Deep Batle: The Missing Link, Monograph, School of Advanced Military
“penetraton/
Studies, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, 1991, pp. 4-12.
breakthrough”. prominent military thinkers of the Soviet era, such as Mikhail Tukhachevsky
9
Department of the Army, FM 100-2-1, The Soviet Army: Operatons and Tactcs, Washington,
1984, pp. 2-1 – 2-12. Not once is the term “centre of gravity” mentoned when referring to
6
Chief of the Russian Armed Forces General Staf and frst Deputy Defence Minister, appointed Soviet operatonal and tactcal doctrine.
10
by President Vladimir Putn in 2012. Charles Pickar, op. cit., pp. 10, 37.
7 11
M. Kofman, M. Rojanski, A Closer Look at Russia Hybrid War, Kennan Cable, Wilson Center. Can Kasapoglu, Russia’s Renewed Military Thinking: Non-Linear Warfare and Refexive Control,
no. 7, 2015. Research Paper no. 121, NATO Defence College, Rome, 2015, pp. 8-9.
No . 1 - 2 / 2 0 1 8 MILITARY SCIENCE 1 2 1 3
Non - L i n ear Warfare vs . Hy bri d WarMfarae rius Titi POTÎRNICHE
the enemy throughout the enemy’s territory in the global informaton military exercise of high proportons to intmidate Georgia, as well as
17
space, airspace, and outer space, on land and sea” are features to prepare the armed forces for invasion .
12
of the modern war . The Russian Natonal Security Strategy addresses The operaton led by Russia in Georgia had elements of the new
ROMANI AN
MILIT AR Y the ways to achieve a unitary approach by the government, to both concept of deep operatons, such as: striking military objectves
THINKING 13
discouragement and national security, and social mobilisation . of operatve and strategic importance, undermining President
The emphasis on deep operatons in Russia’s military reform process Saakashvili’s authority, disruptng Georgia’s connectons with South
and the integraton of the government in this process can also have an
Osseta and Abkhazia, afectng the reputaton of the state at the
From the Russian
ofensive efect. Russia’s recent military actons show that it is ready to
internatonal level, reducing economic actvity etc. By striking these
perspectve,
strike an opponent in many ways, simultaneously, using the diplomatc,
targets across Georgia’s entre strategic depth, Russia managed to actve measures
informaton, military and economic natonal power tools, following are undercover
weaken the state to the point where, when the conventonal Russian
Russia’s recent and decepton
the theory of deep operatons. Moreover, the new concept of waging
military actons forces entered the country, Georgia’s politcal will collapsed just as it operatons
show that it is military actons seeks to place less emphasis on the involvement of the in support of
was expected according to deep operatons theory. The means used by
ready to strike armed forces in the frst phase, their role being only to complete an Russian foreign
the Russian Federaton seem to be conventonal in a certain way; in the
an opponent policy.
acton taken by other means.
in many ways, Russian-Georgian confict in 2008, cyber warfare and irregular forces
simultaneously, As an example of how this concept was implemented, in the inital
18
were used extensively . The use of such forces and some “tricks”
using the
phase of the 2008 Russian-Georgian war, Russia launched a series
diplomatc, did not represent anything new to Russia, these means originatng in
of coordinated actons aimed at paralysing Georgia and forcing it to
informaton,
another concept inherited from the Soviet Union period, called “actve
military and abandon its policy of moving closer to NATO. By diplomatc means,
economic measures”.
Russia tried to compromise Georgian President Mikhail Saakashvili,
natonal power
tools, following encouraged protests against the government, established direct
Actve Measures
the theory of
contacts with unrecognised governments in Osseta and Abkhazia and
deep operatons.
14 The concept of “actve measures” describes many of the non-military
lifed the sanctons that banned arms exports to these regions .
and asymmetric methods referred to when the term “hybrid warfare”
At the same tme, in the informaton environment, Russia spread The purpose
is brought up. From the Russian perspectve, actve measures are of actve
allegatons of Georgian “atrocites” in South Osseta and let everybody
measures is to
undercover and decepton operatons in support of Russian foreign
know that their troops present in the area were in a peacekeeping infuence the
mission15. At the economic level, Russia imposed sanctons on Georgia policy. They are diferent from intelligence or counter-intelligence public opinion
or the actons
activities and traditional diplomatic and information activities.
on energy, trade and fnance as a form of retaliaton for its closeness
of individuals,
to NATO16. Shortly before the hostlites began, Russia organised a The purpose of actve measures is to infuence the public opinion or the governments or
actons of individuals, governments or a target group. The defnitons a target group.
12
Russian Federaton, Military Doctrine of the Russian Federaton, Government of the Russian given by the Western world to actve measures show that they are a
Federaton, Moscow, 2014, paragraphs 15, 43-44, 48-51, and 52-53.
13 form of politcal warfare led by intelligence and security agencies to
Olga Oliker, Unpacking Russia’s New Natonal Security Strategy, Center for Strategic and
Internatonal Studies, 7 January 2016, htps://www.csis.org/analysis/unpacking-russias-new-
infuence the course of world events. Actve measures range from
natonal-security-strategy, retrieved on 23.10.2016.
14
Ariel Cohen, Robert Hamilton, The Russian Military and the Georgia War: Lessons and media manipulaton to special actons that involve diferent levels of
Implicatons, ERAP Monograph, Strategic Studies Insttute, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, 2011,
violence and can include misinformaton, propaganda, falsifcaton of
p. 15.
15
Ibid, pp. 15-16.
16
Randall Newnham, Georgia on my Mind? Russian Sanctons and the End of the ‘Rose 17 Ariel Cohen, Robert Hamilton, op. cit., pp. 17-18, 23-27.
18
Revoluton’, in Journal of Eurasian Studies (6/2015). Ibid, pp. 26-28, 44-49.
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