X-rays and extreme ultraviolet radiation: principles and applications

652 Pages·2016·9.687 MB·English

by  Attwood, David T., Geniesse, Linda, Sakdinawat, Anne

X-Rays and Extreme Ultraviolet
Radiation
Principles and Applications
DAVID ATTWOOD
UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley
ANNE SAKDINAWAT
SLACNationalAcceleratorLaboratory
Illustrationsby LINDA GENIESSE
UniversityPrintingHouse,CambridgeCB28BS,UnitedKingdom
OneLibertyPlaza,20thFloor,NewYork,NY10006,USA
477WilliamstownRoad,PortMelbourne,VIC3207,Australia
4843/24,2ndFloor,AnsariRoad,Daryaganj,Delhi-110002,India
79AnsonRoad,#06-04/06,Singapore079906
CambridgeUniversityPressispartoftheUniversityofCambridge.
ItfurtherstheUniversity’smissionbydisseminatingknowledgeinthepursuitof
education,learningandresearchatthehighestinternationallevelsofexcellence.
www.cambridge.org
Informationonthistitle:www.cambridge.org/9781107062894
(cid:2)C CambridgeUniversityPress2016
Thispublicationisincopyright.Subjecttostatutoryexception
andtotheprovisionsofrelevantcollectivelicensingagreements,
noreproductionofanypartmaytakeplacewithoutthewritten
permissionofCambridgeUniversityPress.
Firstpublished2016
PrintedintheUnitedKingdombyClays,StIvesplc
AcatalogrecordforthispublicationisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary
LibraryofCongressCataloginginPublicationdata
Names:Attwood,DavidT.,author.|Sakdinawat,Anne,author.|Geniesse,Linda,illustrator.
Title:X-raysandextremeultravioletradiation:principlesandapplications/DavidAttwood
(UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley),AnneSakdinawat(SLACNationalAcceleratorLaboratory);
illustrationsbyLindaGeniesse.
Othertitles:Softx-raysandextremeultravioletradiation
Description:Secondedition.|Cambridge,UnitedKingdom;NewYork,NY:Cambridge
UniversityPress,2016.|Earliereditionpublishedundertitle:Softx-raysandextreme
ultravioletradiation.|Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.
Identifiers:LCCN2016035981|ISBN9781107062894(hardback;alk.paper)|
ISBN1107062896(hardback;alk.paper)
Subjects:LCSH:Grenzrays.|Ultravioletradiation.
Classification:LCCQC482.G68A882016|DDC539.7/222–dc23
LCrecordavailableathttps://lccn.loc.gov/2016035981
ISBN978-1-107-06289-4Hardback
Additionalresourcesforthispublicationatwww.cambridge.org/xrayeuv
CambridgeUniversityPresshasnoresponsibilityforthepersistenceoraccuracy
ofURLsforexternalorthird-partyinternetwebsitesreferredtointhispublication,
anddoesnotguaranteethatanycontentonsuchwebsitesis,orwillremain,
accurateorappropriate.
X-RaysandExtremeUltravioletRadiation
With this fully updated second edition, you will gain a detailed understanding of the
physics and applications of modern x-ray and extreme ultraviolet (EUV) radiation
sources. Taking into account the most recent improvements in capabilities, coverage
isexpandedtoincludenewchaptersonfreeelectronlasers(FELs),laserhighharmonic
generation(HHG),x-rayandEUVoptics,andnanoscaleimaging,acompletelyrevised
chapter on spatial and temporal coherence, and extensive discussion of the generation
andapplicationsoffemtosecondandattosecondtechniques.Youwillbeguidedstepby
stepthroughthemathematicsofeachtopic,withover300figures,50referencetables,
and600equationsenablingeasyunderstandingofkeyconcepts.Homeworkproblems,
asolutionsmanualforinstructors,andlinkstoYouTube lecturesaccompany thebook
online.
Thisisthe“go-to”guideforgraduatestudents,researchers,andindustrypractitioners
lookingtograspthefundamentalsofx-rayandEUVinteractionwithmatter,orexpand
theirknowledgeofthisrapidlygrowingfield.
David Attwood is Professor Emeritus at the University of California, Berkeley. He is
a co-founder of the Applied Science and Technology PhD program at Berkeley, and a
Fellow of the American Physical Society and the Optical Society of America. He has
publishedover100scientificpapersandco-editedseveralbooks.
AnneSakdinawatisascientistattheSLACNationalAcceleratorLaboratory,whereshe
leadsascientificallymotivatedimagingandnanofabricationgroupco-locatedatStan-
fordUniversity.SheistherecipientoftheinternationalMeyer-IlseAwardforadvances
inx-raymicroscopy,andaUSDepartmentofEnergyEarlyCareerAward.
ToProfessorsStanleyGoldstein
andNathanMarcuvitz,andtoEllie
Contents
PrefacetotheSecondEdition pagexiii
AcknowledgmentsfortheSecondEdition xiv
PrefacetotheFirstEdition xv
AcknowledgmentsfortheFirstEdition xviii
1 Introduction 1
1.1 TheX-RayandExtremeUltravioletRegionsoftheElectromagnetic
Spectrum 1
1.2 BasicAbsorptionandEmissionProcesses 5
1.3 AtomicEnergyLevelsandAllowedTransitions 11
1.4 Scattering,Diffraction,andRefractionofElectromagneticRadiation 20
References 24
HomeworkProblems 26
2 RadiationandScatteringatEUVandX-RayWavelengths 27
2.1 Maxwell’sEquationsandtheWaveEquation 27
2.2 CalculatingScatteredFields 30
2.3 RadiatedPowerandPoynting’sTheorem 37
2.4 ScatteringCross-Sections 41
2.5 ScatteringbyaFreeElectron 42
2.6 ScatteringbyBoundElectrons 45
2.7 ScatteringbyaMulti-ElectronAtom 48
References 58
HomeworkProblems 59
3 WavePropagationandRefractiveIndexatX-RayandEUVWavelengths 60
3.1 TheWaveEquationandRefractiveIndex 61
3.2 PhaseVariationandAbsorptionofPropagatingWaves 66
3.3 ReflectionandRefractionatanInterface 71
3.4 TotalExternalReflectionofX-RaysandEUVRadiation 74
3.5 ReflectionCoefficientsatanInterface 77
3.6 Brewster’sAngle 86
viii Contents
3.7 FieldPenetrationintoaLossyMediumNeartheCriticalAngle 88
3.8 Determinationofδandβ:TheKramers–KronigRelations 97
3.9 EnhancedReflectivityfromPeriodicStructures 101
References 107
HomeworkProblems 109
4 CoherenceatShortWavelengths 110
4.1 ConceptsofSpatialandTemporalCoherence 111
4.2 SpatialandSpectralFiltering 119
4.3 ExamplesofExperimentsthatRequireCoherence 121
4.4 ThevanCittert–ZernikeTheorem 126
4.5 Young’sDoubleSlitInterferenceTechnique 135
4.6 SpatialandTemporalCoherence,andTruePhaseCoherence 137
4.7 DiffractionofRadiationbyaCoherentlyIlluminatedPinhole
Aperture 139
4.8 SimilaritiesbetweentheDiffractionofPartiallyCoherentand
CoherentRadiationbyaCircularAperture 144
References 145
HomeworkProblems 147
5 SynchrotronRadiation 148
5.1 Introduction 149
5.2 CharacteristicsofBendingMagnetRadiation 153
5.3 CharacteristicsofUndulatorRadiation 161
5.4 UndulatorRadiation:CalculationsofRadiatedPower,Brightness,and
Harmonics 167
5.5 TheScaleofHarmonicMotion 200
5.6 SpatialandSpectralFilteringofUndulatorRadiation 205
5.7 TheTransitionfromUndulatortoWigglerRadiation 215
5.8 WigglerPowerandFlux 220
References 223
HomeworkProblems 226
6 X-RayandEUVFreeElectronLasers 227
6.1 TheFreeElectronLaser 228
6.2 EvolutionfromUndulatorRadiationtoFreeElectronLasing 231
6.3 TheFELEquationsandCharacteristicParameters 237
6.4 FirstFELLasingExperimentsatEUVandX-RayWavelengths 247
6.5 SpatialandTemporalCoherenceofX-RayFELRadiation 251
6.6 SeededandSelf-SeededFELs 256
6.7 Pump-ProbeCapabilities 261
6.8 CurrentFELFacilities,Parameters,andCapabilities 265
Contents ix
6.9 ScientificApplicationsofCoherent,Intense,andShortDuration(fs/as)
EUVandX-RayFELRadiation 266
References 270
HomeworkProblems 278
7 LaserHighHarmonicGeneration 279
7.1 TheBasicProcessofHighHarmonicGeneration(HHG) 279
7.2 ElectronTunneling,Trajectories,ReturnEnergies,andtheEfficiencyof
HighHarmonicGeneration 281
7.3 SpatialandTemporalCoherenceofHighHarmonicRadiation 293
7.4 IR/EUVDephasingandtheEffectivePropagationPathLengthforHHG 295
7.5 AttosecondDurationEUV/SoftX-RayPulses 300
7.6 AttosecondProbingofDynamicalProcessesinAtoms,Molecules,
Nanoparticles,andSolids 306
References 310
HomeworkProblems 314
8 PhysicsofHotDensePlasmas 315
8.1 Introduction 316
8.2 ShortandLongRangeInteractionsinPlasmas 318
8.3 BasicParametersforDescribingaPlasma 321
8.4 Microscopic,Kinetic,andFluidDescriptionsofaPlasma 324
8.5 NumericalSimulations 362
8.6 DensityGradients:UVandEUVProbingofPlasmas 367
8.7 X-RayEmissionfromaHotDensePlasma 371
8.8 AnApplication:EUVEmittingPlasmaforComputerChipLithography 390
References 395
HomeworkProblems 402
9 ExtremeUltravioletandSoftX-RayLasers 403
9.1 BasicProcesses 404
9.2 Gain 411
9.3 RecombinationLasingwithHydrogen-LikeCarbonIons 416
9.4 CollisionallyPumpedNeon-LikeandNickel-LikeLasers 421
9.5 CompactEUVLasers 431
9.6 SpatiallyCoherentEUVandSoftX-RayLasers 436
References 440
HomeworkProblems 445
10 X-RayandExtremeUltravioletOptics 446
10.1 Introduction 446
10.2 ReflectiveX-RayOptics 448
x Contents
10.3 MultilayerMirrors 455
10.4 CapillaryOptics 464
10.5 TransmissionGratings 467
10.6 TheFresnelZonePlateLens 469
10.7 ReflectionGratings 498
10.8 CrystalOptics 499
10.9 CompoundRefractiveLenses 501
References 505
HomeworkProblems 513
11 X-RayandEUVImaging 514
11.1 Introduction 514
11.2 SpatialResolutionandContrast 518
11.3 ProjectionImaging 524
114 ScanningX-RayMicroscopy 537
11.5 Full-FieldX-RayMicroscopy 541
11.6 DiffractiveImagingTechniques 548
11.7 OpticalSystemforEUVLithography 557
References 559
HomeworkProblems 566
AppendixA:UnitsandPhysicalConstants 567
A.1 TheInternationalSystemofUnits(SI) 567
A.2 PhysicalConstants 569
AppendixB:ElectronBindingEnergies,PrincipalK-andL-ShellEmission
Lines,andAugerElectronEnergies 570
AppendixC:AtomicScatteringFactors,AtomicAbsorptionCoefficients,and
SubshellPhotoionizationCross-Sections 578
AppendixD:MathematicalandVectorRelationships 592
D.1 VectorandTensorFormulas 592
D.2 SeriesExpansions 593
D.3 TrigonometricRelationships 594
D.4 DefiniteIntegrals 595
D.5 FunctionsofaComplexVariable 596
D.6 FourierTransformsandFourierTransformPairs 599
D.7 TheDiracDeltaFunction 600
D.8 TheCauchyPrincipalValueTheorem 600
AppendixE:SomeIntegrationsink,ω-Space 602
AppendixF:LorentzSpace-TimeTransformations 607
F.1 FrequencyandWavenumberRelations 608
F.2 AngularTransformations 611
Contents xi
F.3 TheLorentzContractionofLength 612
F.4 TimeDilation 613
F.5 TransformingdP(cid:3)/d(cid:5)(cid:3)todP/d(cid:5) 614
AppendixG:SomeFELAlgebra 617
G.1 SlowandFastPhaseforEnergyTransfer,θ andθ 617
s f
G.2 TheOne-DimensionalWaveEquation 618
AppendixH:IonizationRatesofNobleGasAtomsasaFunctionofLaser
IntensityandPulseDurationat800nmWavelength 620
Index 622