Transcreation in Marketing and Advertising : An Ethnographic Study

243 Pages·2016·1.18 MB·English

Table of Contents
1. Introduction ........................................................................................................ 10
1.1. Why transcreation? .................................................................................................... 10
1.2. Research purpose ...................................................................................................... 11
1.3. Research questions ................................................................................................... 11
1.4. Contribution .............................................................................................................. 12
1.5. Delimitation .............................................................................................................. 13
1.6. Dissertation structure ............................................................................................... 13

2. Translation studies ............................................................................................. 15
2.1. The map and the development of translation studies .............................................. 15
2.2. The turns and memes of translation studies – different approaches to describing
the development of a research fields ............................................................................... 16
2.2.1. Issues with turns ..................................................................................................................... 19
2.2.2. Translation and memes ......................................................................................................... 19
2.2.2.1. The nature of memes .................................................................................................... 20
2.2.2.2. The equivalence meme .................................................................................................. 22
2.2.3. New terminology .................................................................................................................... 24
2.3. Taking an active stand ............................................................................................ 26
2.4. Context-oriented research ....................................................................................... 28
2.4.1. Why the context-oriented perspective for this study? ...................................................... 31
2.4.2. More on translation in context – the sociology of translation ........................................ 31
2.4.2.1. Translation and networks ............................................................................................. 38
2.4.2.2. Translation and interdisciplinarity ............................................................................... 38
2.4.2.3. Bourdieu and the sociology of translation ................................................................. 38
2.4.2.4. Sociology of translation and invisibility ...................................................................... 40
2.4.2.5. Sociological aspects of functionalism ......................................................................... 41
2.5. Advertising translation vs. transcreation ................................................................. 44
2.6. Localisation vs. transcreation .................................................................................. 46
2.7. Translation vs. transcreation ................................................................................... 50
2.8. Translation dichotomies .......................................................................................... 52
2.9. Descriptive translation studies ................................................................................ 55
2.9.1. On norms ................................................................................................................................ 55
2.9.1.1. Types of norms .............................................................................................................. 56
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2.9.2. Assumed translation .............................................................................................................. 56
2.10. Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 59

3. Integrated Marketing Communications ............................................................. 60
3.1. Introducing Integrated Marketing Communications ............................................. 60
3.1.1. Bendgate .................................................................................................................................. 65
3.2. Open source brand management ............................................................................ 65
3.2.1. Japanese failure in China ....................................................................................................... 67
3.3. Adaptation of marketing communications ............................................................. 68
3.4. Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 69

4. The concept of transcreation .............................................................................. 70
4.1. On concepts and words ........................................................................................... 70
4.1.1. Transcreation – first of all a word ....................................................................................... 71
4.2. Transcreation and translation ................................................................................. 72
4.2.1. Opposition towards new terminology ................................................................................ 74
4.3. The practitioners’ view ............................................................................................ 76
4.4. Scholars vs. practitioners ......................................................................................... 86
4.5. Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 87

5. Methodology ....................................................................................................... 91
5.1. Qualitative vs. quantitative research methods ......................................................... 91
5.2. Ethnography ............................................................................................................ 92
5.2.1. Participant observation .......................................................................................................... 94
5.2.2. Ethnographic techniques ...................................................................................................... 96
5.2.2.1. Making observations ...................................................................................................... 97
5.2.2.2. Questioning ..................................................................................................................... 99
5.2.2.3. Interacting with participants ......................................................................................... 99
5.2.3. Researcher roles ...................................................................................................................... 99
5.2.3.1. Complete observer ....................................................................................................... 101
5.2.3.2. Observer-as-participant ............................................................................................... 102
5.2.3.3. Participant-as-observer ................................................................................................ 102
5.2.3.4. Complete participant ................................................................................................... 103
5.2.3.5. How to choose a role and enter the field ................................................................. 105
5.2.4. Reasons for choosing ethnography ................................................................................... 106
5.2.5. Ethnography in translation ................................................................................................. 107
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5.2.5.1. Ethnography – a growing trend in translation studies? ......................................... 108
5.2.6. Organisational ethnography ............................................................................................... 109
5.2.6.1. Terminological discussion .......................................................................................... 111
5.2.7. Ethnography and case studies ............................................................................................ 112
5.2.8. Challenges to ethnography ................................................................................................. 117
5.2.8.1. Time span ...................................................................................................................... 119
5.2.9. Building an ethnographic study ......................................................................................... 120
5.3. Research design ...................................................................................................... 121
5.3.1. Ontological and epistemological considerations ............................................................. 122
5.3.1.1. Ontology ........................................................................................................................ 122
5.3.1.2. Epistemology ................................................................................................................ 123
5.3.2. Scientific worldview ............................................................................................................. 124
5.3.3. Strategy ................................................................................................................................... 125
5.3.4. Methods/techniques ............................................................................................................ 126
5.3.5. Frame of the ethnographic study ....................................................................................... 126
5.4. Method of analysis .................................................................................................. 127
5.4.1. Template analysis ................................................................................................................. 128
5.4.1.1. Generating codes ......................................................................................................... 129
5.4.1.1.1. The coding process .............................................................................................. 130
5.4.1.1.2. Hierarchical and parallel coding ......................................................................... 131
5.4.1.2. Challenges to doing template analysis ....................................................................... 131
5.4.1.3. Preliminary list of codes .............................................................................................. 131
5.5. Introducing the scene of study ............................................................................... 133
5.5.1. Choosing a company ........................................................................................................... 134
5.6. Ethical considerations ............................................................................................ 134
5.7. Doing the field study .............................................................................................. 135
5.7.1. Data material ......................................................................................................................... 136
5.7.2. Assumed transcreation ........................................................................................................ 137

6. Analysis and results .......................................................................................... 139
6.1. Moving in ................................................................................................................ 139
6.1.1. The surroundings ................................................................................................................. 140
6.1.2. First day at the office ........................................................................................................... 141
6.2. Terminology ........................................................................................................... 143
6.3. Agents ..................................................................................................................... 147
6.3.1. Transcreation managers ...................................................................................................... 147
6.3.1.1. Self-perception ............................................................................................................. 147
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6.3.2. The copywriter ...................................................................................................................... 149
6.3.3. The copyeditor ...................................................................................................................... 151
6.3.4. The client ............................................................................................................................... 153
6.3.4.1. Client management ...................................................................................................... 153
6.3.4.2. Feedback from the client ............................................................................................ 159
6.3.4.3. Dealing with deadlines ................................................................................................ 161
6.3.4.4. Meeting client expectations ........................................................................................ 165
6.4. Working in an international environment .............................................................. 166
6.4.1. Challenges to the communication – language deficiencies ............................................ 168
6.4.2. Cultural and linguistic plurality as an important asset .................................................... 173
6.4.3. Transcreation managers interacting with writers and clients ........................................ 175
6.4.4. Transcreation as a teamwork effort ................................................................................... 177
6.5. Quality in transcreation .......................................................................................... 179
6.5.1. Quality management ............................................................................................................ 180
6.5.2. Campaign consistency ......................................................................................................... 182
6.5.2.1. Coordinating campaigns ............................................................................................. 183
6.5.2.2. Campaign guardians ..................................................................................................... 187
6.5.3. Terminology management .................................................................................................. 188
6.5.4. Cultural/native insight ......................................................................................................... 189
6.6. Transcreation vs. translation .................................................................................. 190
6.6.1. Transcreation projects ......................................................................................................... 196
6.6.1.1. Challenges encountered .............................................................................................. 198
6.6.1.2. Transcreation as copywriting ..................................................................................... 201
6.6.1.3. Transcreation as fun .................................................................................................... 202
6.6.2. Translation projects ............................................................................................................. 203
6.6.3. Duality in the texts – viewed as either translation or transcreation ............................. 205

7. Discussion and conclusion ............................................................................... 207
7.1. The transcreational turn ........................................................................................ 207
7.1.1. Where does transcreation begin? ....................................................................................... 208
7.1.2. Transcreation as glorified translation? .............................................................................. 214
7.1.3. Transcreation – an answer to requirements of campaign consistency? ....................... 215
7.1.3.1. Choosing standardisation or adaptation ................................................................... 216
7.1.3.2. Cross-cultural branding ............................................................................................... 216
7.1.4. Writer engagement ............................................................................................................... 218
7.1.5. Power relations ..................................................................................................................... 219
7.1.5.1. The transcreation manager and the creative agency ............................................... 220
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7.1.5.2. The copywriter and the copyeditor ........................................................................... 221
7.1.5.3. The client ....................................................................................................................... 222
7.2. Beyond the description of transcreation ............................................................... 222
7.2.1. Translation as a straw man ................................................................................................. 224
7.2.2. The reality of the client is very much the reality of the language service provider .... 224
7.2.3. The economic turn ............................................................................................................... 225
7.3. Overall conclusions ............................................................................................... 226
7.3.1. Agents .................................................................................................................................... 227
7.3.2. Working in an international environment ........................................................................ 228
7.3.3. Quality in transcreation ....................................................................................................... 228
7.3.4. Transcreation vs. translation .............................................................................................. 228
7.4. Limitations ............................................................................................................. 229
7.5. Future perspectives ................................................................................................ 229
8. English summary .............................................................................................. 231
9. Dansk sammendrag .......................................................................................... 233
10. List of appendices ........................................................................................... 235
11. References ........................................................................................................ 236

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1. Introduction

Transcreation is in many ways the essence of this dissertation. It can basically be
described as a fusion of the two words translation and creation. Together they form a new
word, but do they also form a new idea? This dissertation sets out to explore the
perceptions attached to this term and how these perceptions affect everyday working
situations within an agency that provides transcreation services. I will now briefly explain
the reasons for choosing transcreation as the subject for this PhD dissertation, and after
that, I will present the main contributions and delimitations of this research project.

1.1. Why transcreation?
Within marketing and advertising, transcreation constitutes a fairly new domain, which
has experienced extensive growth during the last decade or so. More and more
companies provide transcreation alongside other services like translation and localisation.
In academic circles, the term transcreation has so far received little attention.
This, however, is not to say that transcreation is an untreated subject within translation
studies. It does appear on different occasions (e.g. Bernal Merino 2006; Gaballo 2012;
Rike 2013; Katan 2015), and the scientific journal Cultus1 even included transcreation in
the title of its 7th edition in 2014. So in a certain way you could say that the growth of
transcreation among practitioners is starting to be reflected in academia. However, the
view from within the transcreation industry itself is something that has so far been hard
to find, and that is where the present dissertation wants to contribute.
In translation studies, the workplace perspective has become an element of
increasing attention, as it has been broadly recognised that translation does not take place
in a vacuum (Koskinen 2008). I therefore see a context-oriented field study as a valuable
asset to the academic treatment of transcreation.

From the practitioners’ point of view it should be worth noticing that in a domain with
many neighbouring terms like transcreation, localisation, marketing translation etc.,
boundaries can easily move and blur distinctions between different practices. By diving
into the process of transcreation, this project could help strengthen the training of
current and future transcreators.

1 Cultus – the Journal of intercultural communication and mediation
2 Pseudonym
3 http://www.coca-colacompany.com/history/2008/03/bite-the-wax-ta.html (consulted 30/1-2016)
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1.2. Research purpose
In 1980, Susan Bassnett released a book with the very laconic title “Translation Studies”.
The book has since then been continuously reedited, just about once every decade, and
saw its fourth edition published in 2014. Being originally from 1980, it first came out at a
time, when the discipline of translation studies was very much in its infant years (some
even proclaim that it still is) having existed at that point for less than a decade. Perhaps
for that reason, this work is very concerned with what could be called the foundations of
the discipline. I introduce Bassnett’s work here, because she explicitly addresses the
purpose of a theory of translation. Bassnett states that “[t]he purpose of translation
theory, then, is to reach an understanding of the processes undertaken in the act of
translation and, not, as is so commonly misunderstood, to provide a set of norms for
effecting the perfect translation” (2002: 43). Much in the same vein, Toury (2006) talks in
favour of conducting research on translation on a “wish-to-understand” basis. The need
for both Bassnett and Toury to emphasise this point suggests that some voices in
translation studies speak in favour of a more prescriptive approach.
Following the principles of both Bassnett and Toury, the purpose of this
dissertation is not to provide normative standards for transcreation. Instead, I seek to
explore the concept of transcreation and in Bassnett’s words try to “reach an
understanding of the processes undertaken” (in this case in the act of transcreation).

1.3. Research questions
In order to explore transcreation from this perspective, I propose the following research
questions:

1. How is transcreation conceptualised in:
- academic literature?
- literature from transcreation practitioners?

2. How is transcreation perceived and practised in the marketing implementation
agency TagLine2?

2 Pseudonym
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As we shall later see, this dissertation adheres to a qualitative research paradigm. It is
explorative in the sense that it seeks to look at perceptions of the phenomenon
(transcreation) from different angles.
The first research question takes on a broad perspective and will not be limited to
the domain of marketing and advertising, which is highlighted in the dissertation title.
This question will mainly be treated in chapter 4 through a review of literature coming
from both scholars and practitioners, which concerns transcreation.
The second research question is the one that is most extensive in scope. The title
of the dissertation indicates that it will be based on ethnographic description, and this
will be true for RQ2, which focuses on one single agency. I will attend to this research
question in chapter 6, which is an analysis based on data collected from an ethnographic
field study that took place in February and March of 2014.

1.4. Contribution
Theoretically, the present dissertation aims at contributing to the discussion about what
translation can be. Translation studies is a field that currently has a strong focus on
moving boundaries, and in this context, the present study will discuss the term
transcreation and its relation to translation.
Furthermore, the project should provide some methodological contributions as
well. As a method, ethnography is still relatively new within translation studies, and it is
my impression that the field could benefit from the experiences of researchers going out
in the field for extended periods of time. This project will add to the literature on
fieldwork in translation studies and will contribute with ethnographic experiences in
translation related contexts.
As for transcreation in its own right, this is a subject that has mostly been treated
from a conceptual level. This dissertation will contribute to the broad conceptual debate
on transcreation that is already going on. But more importantly, it will add the insider
view – transcreation as seen from within the transcreation industry.
In general, the contributions of this dissertation are not propositions for a set of
best practices for transcreation, but rather descriptions of how perceptions of
transcreation are manifested through words and actions.

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1.5. Delimitation
As a study that focuses on one particular provider of transcreation services this
dissertation will be limited in scope, and its conclusions will mainly concern one specific
agency. Many of the perceptions can only be said to represent a very limited group of
people, so the potential for generalisation is relatively small.
Chapter 4 extends the view on transcreation and includes perceptions coming
from many different entities, but these perceptions are presented in short form.
Furthermore, it is important to emphasise that this is a study of transcreation
within the sphere of marketing and advertising. The term transcreation has found its way
into many different domains, and some of these domains will be briefly presented in
chapter 4. But the focus will be on one specific type of transcreation, and therefore the
dissertation only aims at making conclusions that fit a marketing and advertising context.

1.6. Dissertation structure
Chapter 2: Translation studies
One of the key purposes of chapter 2 is to place this dissertation within the research field
of translation studies. The chapter will emphasise on context-oriented approaches to
translation research and thereby line up the theoretical foundation of the project.

Chapter 3: Integrated Marketing Communications
Interdisciplinarity is a familiar element in translation studies, and this project will also
broaden its perspective and include other scientific fields. This chapter introduces the
field of Integrated Marketing Communications (IMC), although not as thoroughly as the
field of translation studies. Campaign consistency is a key element in transcreation, and
IMC is a field that describes this element and treats the subject of connecting with
consumers across media, communications, campaigns, and cultures.

Chapter 4: The concept of transcreation
Whereas chapter 6 treats transcreation thoroughly from a narrow perspective, chapter 4
is more the other way around. It makes an overview of the term and its different uses.
This means that the marketing and advertising perspective, which is the main focus of
this dissertation, will, for a moment be broadened and include other sides of
transcreation. Basically, the implication is that the chapter will tend to both scholarly and
industrial uses of the term transcreation and will look for both common ground and
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discrepancies across the transcreation landscape. This chapter attends to research
question 1, which seeks the broad perspective of transcreation and takes in several
different entities representing a large array of professional domains.

Chapter 5: Methodology
This chapter presents the methodological framework of the study. As indicated in the
title, this is an ethnographic study, wherefore this chapter will focus on ethnographic
methods and relate ethnography to translation studies. Furthermore, the chapter will
situate the present study within a qualitative research paradigm based on a social-
constructivist philosophy of science.

Chapter 6: Analysis and results
This chapter is founded on ethnographic principles and analyses perceptions of
transcreation through observations made at an agency, which provides transcreation
services. The data for the analysis was gathered during a four-weeks field study in
London, where I visited a marketing implementation agency that specialises in
transcreation services. During these four weeks, I observed and worked with the in-
house staff of this agency, and this chapter will account for the events that took place
during those four weeks. The results of the analysis will be presented as overall themes.

Chapter 7: Discussion and conclusion
This chapter reflects on the results of the analysis presented in the previous chapter. In
chapter 6, transcreation is studied from the perspective of the agency I worked with, and
in chapter 7, I seek to widen the perspective. Both my research questions start with a how
and are intended to be purely descriptive. In this chapter, I will also start a discussion
about the why of transcreation. Why is it there? And for what purpose?
Finally, this chapter will conclude on the results and limitations of this research
project and discuss the future perspectives of research on transcreation related activities.

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