The Science and Applications of Acoustics

663 Pages·2000·5.82 MB·English

by  Daniel R. Raichel

THE SCIENCE AND
APPLICATIONS OF
ACOUSTICS
THE SCIENCE AND
APPLICATIONS OF
ACOUSTICS
SECOND EDITION
Daniel R. Raichel
CUNY Graduate Center
and
School of Architecture, Urban Design and Landscape Design
The City College of the City University of New York
With253Illustrations
DanielR.Raichel
2727MooreLane
FortCollins,CO80526
USA
[email protected]
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Preface
The science of acoustics deals with the creation of sound, sound transmission
through solids, and the effects of sound on both inert and living materials. As a
mechanicaleffect,soundisessentiallythepassageofpressurefluctuationsthrough
matterastheresultofvibrationalforcesactingonthatmedium.Soundpossesses
the attributes of wave phenomena, as do light and radio signals. But unlike its
electromagnetic counterparts, sound cannot travel through a vacuum. In Sylva
Sylvarumwrittenintheearlyseventeenthcentury,SirFrancisBacondeemedsound
tobe“oneofthesubtlestpiecesofnature,”buthecomplained,“thenatureofsound
ingeneralhathbeensuperficiallyobserved.”Hisaccusationofsuperficialityfrom
the perspective of the modern viewpoint was justified for his time, not only for
acoustics,butalsofornearlyallbranchesofphysicalscience.FrederickV.Hunt
(1905–1967),oneofAmerica’sgreatestacousticalpioneers,pointedoutthat“the
seedsofanalyticalself-consciousnesswerealreadythere,however,andBacon’s
libelagainstacousticswaseventuallydischargedthroughthefloweringofaclearer
comprehensionofthephysicalnatureofsound.”
ModernacousticsisvastlydifferentfromthefieldthatexistedinBacon’stime
and even 20 years ago. It has grown to encompass the realm of ultrasonics and
infrasonicsinadditiontotheaudiorange,astheresultofapplicationsinmateri-
alsscience,medicine,dentistry,oceanology,marinenavigation,communications,
petroleumandmineralprospecting,industrialprocesses,musicandvoicesynthe-
sis,animalbioacoustics,andnoisecancellation.Improvementsarestillbeingmade
intheolderdomainsofmusicandvoicereproduction,audiometry,psychoacous-
tics,speechanalysis,andenvironmentalnoisecontrol.
Thistext—aimedatscienceandengineeringmajorsincollegesanduniversities,
principallyundergraduatesinthelastyearortwooftheirprogramsandgraduation
students,aswellaspractitionersinthefield—waswrittenwiththeassumptionthat
theusersofthistextaresufficientlyversedinmathematicsuptoandincludingthe
levelofdifferentialandpartialdifferentialequations,andthattheyhavetakenthe
sequenceofundergraduatephysicscoursesthatsatisfyengineeringaccreditation
criteria.Itismyhopethatadegreeofmathematicalelegancehasbeensustained
here, even with the emphasis on engineering and scientific applications. While
the use of SI units is stressed, very occasional references are made to physical
vii
viii Preface
parameters expressed in English (or Imperial) units. It is strenuously urged that
laboratory experience be included in the course (or courses) in which this text
isbeingused.Thestudentofacousticswillthusobtainafarkeenerappreciation
of the topics covered in “recitation” classes when he or she gains “hand on”
experience in the use of sound—level meters, signal generators, frequency
analyzers,andothermeasurementtools.
Many of the later chapters in the text are self-contained in the sense that an
instructormayskipcertainsegmentsinordertoconcentrateontheagendamost
appropriatetotheclass.However,masteryofthematerialsintheearlierchapters,
namely,Chapters1–6,isobviouslyrequisitetounderstandingofthelaterchapters.
Chapters such as those dealing with musical instruments or underwater sound
propagationorthelegalaspectsofenvironmentalnoisecanbeskippedinorderto
accommodateacademicschedulesortoallowconcentrationoncertaintopicsof
greaterinteresttotheinstructor(and,hopefully,hisorherclass)suchasultrasound,
architectural acoustics, or other topics. Problems of different levels of difficulty
areincludedattheendofnearlyallofthechapters.Manyoftheproblemsentail
the theoretical aspects of acoustics, but a number of “practical” questions have
alsobeenincluded.
As an author, I hope that I have successfully met the challenge of providing
a modern, fairly comprehensive text in the field for the benefit of both students
and practitioners, whether they are scientists or engineers. In using parts of this
bookinprepublicationeditionsinteachingacousticsclasses,Ihavebenefitedfrom
feedbackandsuggestionsfrommystudents.Anumberofthemhaveproventobe
quiteeagle-eyed,astheyhavesuppliedacontinuousstreamofrecommendations
andcorrections,evenafterthepublicationofthefirstedition.Itisimpossibleto
acknowledge them all, but Gregory Miller and Jose´ Sinabaldi come to mind as
being among the most assiduous. A number of my colleagues and friends have
gonethroughthechaptersofthefirstedition.Therealgenesisofthefirstedition
occurredwhenHarryHimmelblausawtheprepublicationcopywhenIwasasum-
mervisitingprofessoratCaltech’sJetPropulsionLaboratory,andheurgedmeto
considerpublication.InparticularImustacknowledgePaulArveson,nowretired
fromtheNavalSurfaceWarfareCenter,CarderockofBethesda,Maryland,who
went through the first three chapters with a fine-toothed comb, M. G. Prasad of
StevensInstituteofTechnologywhomadeanumberofextremelyvaluablesug-
gestionsforChapter9ininstrumentation,andEdithCorlisswhogreatlyencourage
me on Chapter 10 dealing with the mechanism of hearing. Dr. Zouhair Lazreq,
whodidhispostdoctorateundermytutelage,alsolookedoversomeofthechap-
ters,MartinAlexanderhasbeenhelpfulinobtainingillustrationsforChapter9in
botheditionsfromBru¨elandKjær;Dr.VolkerIrmerofGermany’sFederalEnvi-
ronmentalAgencyintroducedmetotheEuropeanUnion’snoiseregulationsand
otherinternationalcodes,andArmandLernerarrangedtohavematerialsforwarded
from Eckel Corporation of Cambridge, Massachusetts. James E. West, formerly
ofLucentBellLaboratories(andnowattheJohnsHopkinsUniversity)andpast
president (1998–1999) of the Acoustical Society of America, was instrumental
Preface ix
in providing photographs of the anechoic chamber. I am also indebted to Caleb
CochranoftheBostonSymphonyOrchestra,SteveLoweoftheSeattleSymphony
Orchestra,ElizabethCanadaoftheKennedyCenter,SandiBrownoftheMinnesota
OrchestralAssociation,RachelleB.RoeoftheLosAngelesPhilharmonic,Thomas
D.RossingofNorthernIllinoisUniversity,AnnC.PerlmanoftheAmericanInsti-
tuteofPhysics,KarenWeltyofAbbottLaboratories,TomRadlerofHohner,Inc.,
andothers,toomanytolisthere,fortheirhelpinprovidingphotographs,certain
figures,and/orpermissiontoreproducethefigures.
I regarded the preparation of this second edition as a splendid opportunity to
update The Science and Applications of Acoustics. A number of features have
been added to this new edition. Besides the obvious updating of information on
acoustic research and applications throughout the text, a section on prosthetic
hearing devices was added to Chapter 10; and the original Chapter 17 was split
into two chapters, one covering music and music instrumentation and the other
dealing with audio processors and sound reproduction. The topic of ultrasound
hasalsobeenexpandedtotheextentthattwochaptersbecamenecessary,withthe
latter chapter treating the increasingly important topic of medical and industrial
applications.AnintroductiontononlinearacousticsisprovidedinChapter21.
Ialsomusttakethisopportunitytothankmanyofmyfellowacousticiansfor
their comments and suggestions for the second edition. It is hoped that all of
the errors in the first edition has been weeded out and there are precious few, if
any, in this volume. Suggestions for improving the text have come from M. G.
Prasad, Stevens Institute of Technology; Yves Berthelot, Georgia Institute of
Technology;MarkHamilton,UniversityofTexasatAustin;NevilleH.Fletcher,
Australian National University; Uwe Hansen, Indiana State; Frank J. Fahy,
UniversityofSouthhampton;CarleenM.Hutchins,ViolinFamilyAssociation;and
others.
Springer-Verlag’s Dr. Hans Koelsch and Ronald Johnson served ably as the
editorandacquisitionseditor,respectively.KomilaBhatsupervisedtheeditingpro-
cessandNatachaMenarprovedtobeinstrumentalinexpeditingthispublication;
theircontributionsurelyhelpedtoimprovethissecondedition.Itwasapleasure
toworkwiththem.IamstillgratefulforthepastcontributionsofDr.Thomasvon
FoersterandStevenPisano,whobothworkedwithmeatSpringer-Verlagonthe
firstedition.Dr.RobertBeyer,theeditorofthisAIPseriesdealingwithacoustics,
provided a great deal of encouragement and inspiration. He has my unbounded
admiration(andthatofvirtuallyeveryacoustician)fortherangeofhisknowledge
andextraordinarywisdom.Ideemitarareprivilegetoknowsuchaperson.
In the preparation of the second edition, my chief source of inspiration and
supportcontinuestocomefrommywife,Geri.Mypastandpresentworkswere
stimulatedbytheradianceofherpresence.
DanielR.Raichel
FortCollins,Colorado
x Preface
References
Bacon,SirFrancis(LordVeralum).1616(publishedposthumously).SylvaSylvarum.In
TheWorksofSirFrancisBacon,vol.2.1957.Spedding,Ellis,R.L.,Heath,D.D.,etal.
(eds.).London:LongmanandCo.1957.
Hunt,FrederickVinton.1992.OriginsinAcoustics.Woodbury,NY:AcousticalSocietyof
America.
Contents
Preface vii
1. ACapsuleHistoryofAcoustics 1
2. FundamentalsofAcoustics 13
3. SoundWavePropagationandCharacteristics 31
4. VibratingStrings 71
5. VibratingBars 89
6. MembraneandPlates 111
7. Pipes,Waveguides,andResonators 131
8. AcousticAnalogs,Ducts,andFilters 151
9. Sound-MeasuringInstrumentation 173
10. PhysiologyofHearingandPsychoacoustics 213
11. AcousticsofEnclosedSpaces:ArchitecturalAcoustics 243
12. Walls,Enclosures,andBarriers 281
13. CriteriaandRegulationsforNoiseControl 319
14. MachineryNoiseControl 357
15. UnderwaterAcoustics 409
xi
xii Contents
16. Ultrasonics 443
17. CommercialandMedicalUltrasoundApplications 479
18. MusicandMusicalInstruments 509
19. SoundReproduction 569
20. VibrationandVibrationControl 585
21. NonlinearAcoustics 617
AppendixA. PhysicalPropertiesofMatter 629
AppendixB. BesselFunctions 633
AppendixC. UsingLaplaceTransformstoSolveDifferential
Equations 637
Index 649