Origin and Development of the Law of the Sea: History of International Law Revisited

135 Pages·2011·15.54 MB·English

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PUBLICATIONS ON OCEAN DEVELOPMENT
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Publications on Ocean Development
ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT
Volume 7
OF THE LAW OF THE SEA
A seriesofstudieson theinternational, legal, institutionalandpolicy
aspectsoftheoceandevelopment.
History of International Law Revisited
Generaleditor: ShigeruOda
R.P. ANAND
ProfessorofInternationalLaw
I. Anand, RP Legalregimeoftheseabedandthedevelopingcountries. ISBN90-286-0616-5
lawaharlalNehru University
2. Papadakis, N Theinternationallegalregimeofartificialislands. ISBN90-286-0127-9
NewDelhi
3. Oda,S ThelawoftheseainourtimeI- Newdevelopments,1966-I975.ISBN90-286-0277-I
4. Oda, S Thelawoftheseainourtime II- The United NationsSeabedCommittee, 1968
1973. ISBN90-286-0287-9
5. Okidi, C 0 Regional control of ocean pollution: legal and institutional problems and /
prospects. ISBN90-286-0367-0
6. Rembe, NS Africaandtheinternationallawofthesea: astudyofthecontributionofthe
AfricanstatestothethirdUnitedNationsconferenceonthelawofthesea.
ISBN90-286-0639-4
'· .
0
M
1983
MARTINUS NIJHOFF PUBLISHERS
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Library ofCongressCataloging in Publication Data
Anand, R. P. (Ram Prakash), 1933-
Origin and development of the law of the sea.
(Publications on ocean development ; v. 7)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Maritime law. I. Title. II. Series.
JX4411.A54 341.7'566'09 81-18984
ISBN 90-247-2617-4 AAC~
ISBN90-247-2617-4(thisvolume)
ISBN90-247-2616-6(series)
Copywright © 1982byMartinusNijhojjPublishers, TheHague.
Allrightsreserved. Nopartojthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem,
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R.P. ANAND (A SHORT BIOGRAPHY)
Dr. R.P. Anand(bornJune 15, 1933),afterhis LL.B. withafirst divisionin
1953,receivedhisLL.M.in1957fromDelhiUniversity(India)withdistinction
inInternationalLaw. HewasdeclaredasthebestLL.M.studentintheUniver
sity in that year and awarded a special prize. In 1958, he joined the Indian
School of International Studies as a Senior Research Fellow in International
Law.
In 1960-61, he was recipient of a Rockefeller Foundation Fellowship in
InternationalOrganizationatColumbiaUniversityinNewYork. From1961to
1963,hejoinedtheYaleUniversitySchoolofLawasaSterlingFellowwherehe
received his LL.M. in 1962and J.S.D. in 1964. In January 1964, Dr. Anand
was appointed Research Associate at the World Rule of Law Center, Duke
University School ofLaw.
In 1965,hereturnedtothe IndianSchoolofInternationalStudies(nowpart
ofthe Jawaharlal Nehru University) where he has been Professor ofInterna
tional Law and also Chairmanofthe Center for Studiesin Diplomacy, Inter
national Law and Economics.
In 1969,Dr. AnandwasselectedNationalLecturerinLawbytheUniversity
Grants Commission ofthe Government ofIndia, and he delivered lectures at
several universities in India on "New States and International Law."
In 1970-71, Dr. Anand was awardeda fellowship bythe WoodrowWilson
InternationalCenterforScholarsinWashington,D.C.In1973hewasappoint
ed Consultant to the United Nations Secretary-General on Law ofthe Sea.
On leave from his University, from 1978 to 1982, Dr. Anand joined the
Culture Learning Institute ofthe East-West Center Honolulu, as a Research
Associatewherehewas workingonaprojecton "ASEANandthe Lawofthe
Sea."
Besides nine books, Dr. Anand has published more than fifty articles in
Indian, European and American professional journals.
PREFACE
This study was undertaken as part of my project at the East-West Culture
Learning Instituteon "ASEANandthe LawoftheSea." Itismerelyatruism
to state that geography affects the fate and history ofcountries and peoples.
Geographical environment is the permanent element in the shifting fate of
states. Covering far more ofthe surface ofSoutheast Asia than land, the sea
hasalwaysplayedanimportantroleinthehistory,lifeandcultureofSoutheast
Asian peoples. The two largest countries of the region, Indonesia and the
Philippines, are archipelagos consisting of thousands of islands with
"territories"whichcontainmoreseathanland.Indonesiaisnotahomelandto
its people buttheir tanahair or "homelandwater." In Indonesiait used to be
saidthat''theseaunitesandthelanddivides." Theseawasneverconsideredas
a dividing factor in Southeast Asia.
In recent years, Southeast Asia has been described as a collection of
countries facing outward and turning their backs on one another. The
heterogeneityofSoutheastAsiahasbecomealmostacliche.Butitisimportant
to note that experts on maritime trade, like J.C. van Leur, appreciated the
unity and continuity of Southeast Asian history. It is also significant that,
1
despite all differences in languages, religions, customs and legal systems, the
five countries of Southeast Asia - Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines,
SingaporeandThailand - boundtogetherbycommonbondsofgeography, a
common pre-colonial history and similar aspirations for the future, have
decided to join hands together in the form of the Association of Southeast
Asian Nations (ASEAN) for the protection oftheir common interests.
For at least 2000 years, deltaic, coastal and archipelagic empires have dis
tinguishedtheSoutheastAsianregion asazoneofmaritimetransitandtrans
action. Innumerable explorers, emissaries, traders, missionaries, raiders and
I. J.c.vanLeur,Indonesian TradeandSociety:EssaysinAsianSocialandEconomicHistory
(TheHague, 1955)
J\
refugees have for centuries traced and retraced a dense pattern of maritime
traffic and flourishing trade in this important region ofthe world. Once the
port ofMalacca, now the island ofSingapore, the region has always been an CONTENTS
important centre ofmaritime commerce. But despite these long traditions of
maritimenavigationandtrade, theanthropologyofmaritimelawinSoutheast
and other parts ofAsia remains virtually an unstudied subject.
( ItisgenerallyassumedthatmodernlawoftheseaoriginatedinEuropeinthe
seventeenth century as a result ofinteractions among European states. Hugo
Grotius' MareLiberum, published anonymouslyin 1609, is supposedtohave
',J
initiatedthe doctrineofthe "freedomoftheseas" andthemodernlawofthe
sea. NobodyhascaredtonotehowGrotiusandotherclassicaljuristsandtheir
doctrines were influenced bythe Asian maritime practices)
Inanycase,eversincetheacceptanceofthe''freedomoftheseas" inEurope
after a long and acrimonious struggle, this concept has totally coloured Preface IX
Westernthinkingonlawofthesea. Ithasbeenacceptedasanincontrovertible
principle,almostareligiousdogma, whichcouldnotbequestioned.Itisrarely
realized that with the recent technological developments and phenomenal 1. Introduction
changesintheusesofthesea,thedoctrineofthefreedom oftheseaswillhave
tobedrasticallymodified,ifnotabandoned. Anattempthasbeenmadeinthis International Law, Product ofthe European Civilization 1
bookto look at the originand acceptance ofthe freedom ofthe seasthrough Grotius' Mare Liberum 2
the centuries and howits acceptance has cometo bechanged andmodifiedin Eurocentrism in International Law and Thinking 3
recent years. International Relations and History ofEastern Countries Ignored 4
I am extremely grateful to Dr. Verner C. Bickley, Director ofthe Culture Plan ofWork 7
Learning Institute, for allhis help and encouragement in pursuing my rather Notes 8
unorthodox thesis and for permitting me to visit various universities and
archives in the United States, Asia and Europe in search of material. I am
obligedto Dr. JohnWalsh, CoordinatoroftheProjectonSocialandCultural 2. Freedom ofthe Sea and Commercial
Developments in ASEAN, for his lively interest in my research work. My Shipping in the Indian Ocean
heartfeltthanksarealsoduetomycolleagues, Dr. Choon-ho ParkandDr. J.
Philip, who havehelpedmeinnumerousways. Imustacknowledgemygrati Ancient Rhodes and its Maritime Law in the Mediterranean 10
tudetoMs. CharleneFujishigeandMs. JennyIchinotsuboforthetremendous Antiquity ofNavigation in the Indian Ocean 12
patiencewith which they have typed and re-typed the whole manuscript. Rome's Trade with India 14
I am deeply obliged to Honorable Judge Shigeru Oda ofthe International Indian Extension to Southeast Asia 16
CourtofJusticefortakingtimeoutofhisbusyscheduletoreadmymanuscript Rise ofSri VijayaEmpire 19
and for his encouragingremarks. Freedom ofNavigation and Commerce 20
Lastbutnotleast,IshouldnotfailtomentionthecooperationandstrengthI Regulation ofForeign Trade in China 20
received from my wife throughout. Decline ofSri Vijaya Empire 22
Revival ofTrade by Sung Dynastyin China 23
R.I'. Anand Yuan Dynasty and Kublai Khan 23
Honolulu, Hawaii. Marco Polo and Ibn Battuta's Testimony about Free Trade and
May 11, 1981 Navigation 24
Ming Dynasty and Reinvigoration ofChinese Trade 25
1\11 XIII
Naval Supremacy ofArabs and the Spread of Islam 26 The French and the Danish in the East 90
The Founding and Development ofMalacca 28 Pleas for Mare Clausum in Europe 99
Other Principal Entrepots in Asia and Freedom ofTrade 31
"Battleof Books" Continues 102
Long Tradition ofFreedom ofNavigation in the East 34 Selden's Mare Clausum 105
Notes 35
Anglo-Dutch and Anglo-French Rivalries and Wars 107
The Struggle Goes On in the Indian Ocean 109
Piracy in the Indian Ocean during the Seventeenth
3. European Searchfor the Indies and Eighteenth Centuries 111
English Consolidation ofMaritime Power and Expansion
Lure ofIndia and Yearning for Spices 40 to Southeast and East Asia 115
Pope Divides the World between Spain and Portugal 43 Notes 116
Search for India Intensified 44
Vasco da Gama Reaches the Land ofDreams 47
Da Gama's Voyage: A Great Success 49 5. Resurgence ofMare Liberum andtheDevelopment
More Portuguese Expeditions to India 50 ofthe Modern Law ofthe Sea
Introduction ofShips Armed with Cannons in the Indian Ocean 51
Vasco da Gama Returns and Commits Piracy 52 English Consolidate their Power 124
Ruthless da Gama Attacks Calicut 53
Commercial Revolution in Europe 124
Steps Toward a Portuguese MaritimeEmpire 55 Commercial Revolution Leads to Industrial Revolution 127
Attempts to Establish Portuguese Monopoly ofTrade 57 New Imperialism 128
Portuguese Attempt to Destroy Freedom of Navigation and Trade 60
British Maritime Superiority Encourages Freedom ofthe Sea 129
Portuguese Pretensions Defied 62 Freedom ofTrade: Eleventh Commandment 131
Portuguese Success in Destroying the Freedom ofthe Seas 62 Modern International Law Develops 135
Decline ofthe Portuguese Empire 64 Territorial Waters 137
Portugal Fails to Hold the Tide 67 Contiguous Zone 141
Notes 67
Zone ofSecurity 144
Fisheries Jurisdiction 145
Innocent Passage through Territorial Waters and
4. Mare Liberum vs. Mare Clausum
"Rules ofthe Road" on High Seas 149'
High Seas 151
The Dutch Arrive in the Indian Ocean 72 Legal Vacuum 152
Jan van Linschoten: The Dutch Marco Polo 74
Notes 153
Dutch Expeditions 76
Dutch East India Company 76
Grotius' Mare Liberum 77 6. New Challenges to the Freedom ofthe Seas
Freedom ofthe Seas in Grotius and its Antecedents 82
and
Dutch Attempts to Create Monopoly ofSpice Trade 89
Extension ofCoastalStateAuthority
Dutch Build Up an Empire 91
"King Log for King Stork" 93 Present Law Cast in European Mould 159
English Competition 94 Post-1945 Era: A New World 161
Grotius Argues for Dutch Monopoly and against Mare Liberum 95
Expansion of International Society 161
English-Dutch Rivalry Continues 98
Development ofTechnology and Change in the Uses ofthe Sea 161
xv
XIV
Truman Proclamations and Their Aftermath 163 Seabed Beyond the Limits of National Jurisdiction 195
Nascent Custom 165 Comprehensive Conference 197
Territorial Waters 166 Trend Toward Wider National Jurisdictions:
Fisheries Jurisdiction 167 Territorial Sea 198
Straight Baselines for Delimitation ofTerritorial Waters 167 ExclusiveEconomic Zone 199
Mid-Ocean Archipelagos and Their Claims 168 Stretching the Continental Shelf Jurisdiction 200
Enclosure ofWide High Seas Areas for Testing Mid-Ocean Archipelagic Claims 202
Modern Weapon Systems 169 "Common Heritage ofMankind"; A Rallying Cry 203
Air Defense Identification Zones 171 International Machinery for Common Heritage ofMankind 204
Confusion Worse Confounded 172 Passage through Straits 205
Notes 171 Transit through Archipelagic Waters 208
Third UN Law ofthe Sea Conference; Role ofthe Third World 209
Wider National Jurisdictions Confirmed 210
7. FurtherErosion ofFreedom ofthe Seas Informal Negotiating Texts 211
and UnitedNationsEfforts to Codify the Law Passage through Straits Guaranteed 212
Status ofArchipelagic States Recognized 213
International Law Commission Studies Law ofthe The Economic Zone Accepted 215
Sea for Codification 175 Virtual Elimination ofFreedom ofFishing 215
First UN Conference on Law ofthe Sea, 1958 176 Continental ShelfExtended 216
International Law Commission Unable to Recommend An International Authority for Seabed beyond the Limits of
Uniform Limit ofTerritorial Waters 177 National Jurisdiction 216
Attempts to Preserve Three-Mile Rule 177 A Package Deal 218
Lurking Fear ofthe USSR 179 Conference Provides Consensus for Change in Law 218
Six Plus Six 179 Notes 219
Contiguous Zone 180
Innocent Passage through International Straits 181
Continental Shelf 182 9. Freedom ofthe Seas: RetrospectandProspect'
Fisheries and Their Conservation 183
What Was Achieved? 184 Undisputed Rule ofthe Freedom ofthe Seas 225'
Second United Nations Conference on Law ofthe Sea, 1960 185 Freedom ofthe Seas through the Ages 226
United States Proposal 186 Portugal Disturbs Peaceful Navigation 227
Support for the U.S. Proposal 186 Contest ofWits and Arms in Europe 228
Other Proposals 187 Freedom ofthe Seas Becomes the Rule 229
Developing Countries Demand Change 188 Law Vague and Uncertain 229
Soviets Supportthe Extension ofTerritorial Sea 188 Law Helps the Powerful 230
The Conference Fails 189 Challenge to Traditional Law 231
Notes 190 Freedom ofthe Seas not Immutable 235
Truman Declarations: Serious Challenge to the Freedom
ofthe Seas 235
8. Common Heritage ofMankind: UN Efforts to Codify the Law 236
NewPrinciplefor aNewAge Renewed Challenge to the Freedom ofthe Seas 237
Demand for a New Law 239
Tide to Expand Coastal Jurisdiction Irresistible 194
XVI
New Law Emerges 240
Notes 241
1. INTRODUCTION
Index 243
International Law, Product ofEuropean Civilization
It is generally believed and widely accepted that modern law ofthe sea, like
otherrulesofinternationallaw,isaproductoftheEuropeanorWesternChris
tiancivilizationtowhichextra-European, especiallyAsianandAfrican,coun
tries have made little or no contribution. It is said to be the''product ofthe
European mind" and "European beliefs'" and is based on European state
practices which were developed and consolidated during the last three centu
ries. Thus, relating the storyofthedevelopmentofinternationallaw, Profes
sor Verzijl states:
Thebodyofpositiveinternationallawoncecalledinto beingbythecon
cordantpracticeandagreementofEuropeanstates,hassincetheendof
the eighteenth century onwards, spread over the rest of th~ world as a
modern ratio scripta, to which extra-European states have contributed
extraordinarilylittle. Internationallawasitnowstandsisessentiallythe·
product of the European mind and has practically been "received"...
lock, stock and barrel by American and Asiatic states.2
With rareexceptions,3 everyWestern writer oninternationallawaffirmsor
confirms this opinion. As Professor B.V.A. Roling asserts:
Thereisnodoubtaboutit:thetraditionallawofnationsisalawofEuro
pean lineage.4
ProfessorJozefKunzwholeheartedlyagrees: "Ourinternationallawisalaw
ofChristianEurope. Ithas its roots intheRespublica ChristianaofMedieval
Europe," and "is based on the value system of the Occidental culture, or
Christian, and often catholic values."5
Although some ofthe ancient countries, like China, India, Egypt and As-