Investigating the social world.

649 Pages·2012·11.561 MB·English

by  Russell K. Schutt

To Julia Ellen Schutt

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Schutt, Russell K.
(cid:41)(cid:3)(cid:24)(cid:22)(cid:48)(cid:3)(cid:24)(cid:3)(cid:52)(cid:86)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:42)(cid:86)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:89)(cid:72)(cid:91)(cid:80)(cid:93)(cid:76)(cid:3)(cid:48)(cid:85)(cid:75)(cid:92)(cid:90)(cid:91)(cid:89)(cid:80)(cid:72)(cid:83)(cid:3)(cid:40)(cid:89)(cid:76)(cid:72) Investigating the social world : the process and practice of research /
(cid:52)(cid:72)(cid:91)(cid:79)(cid:92)(cid:89)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:57)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:75)(cid:19)(cid:3)(cid:53)(cid:76)(cid:94)(cid:3)(cid:43)(cid:76)(cid:83)(cid:79)(cid:80)(cid:3)(cid:24)(cid:24)(cid:23)(cid:3)(cid:23)(cid:27)(cid:27)(cid:3) Russell K. Schutt.—7th ed.
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p. cm.
(cid:58)(cid:40)(cid:46)(cid:44)(cid:3)(cid:55)(cid:92)(cid:73)(cid:83)(cid:80)(cid:74)(cid:72)(cid:91)(cid:80)(cid:86)(cid:85)(cid:90)(cid:3)(cid:40)(cid:90)(cid:80)(cid:72)(cid:20)(cid:55)(cid:72)(cid:74)(cid:80)(cid:196)(cid:74)(cid:3)(cid:55)(cid:91)(cid:76)(cid:21)(cid:3)(cid:51)(cid:91)(cid:75)(cid:21) Includes bibliographical references and index.
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ISBN 978-1-4129-9980-9 (pbk.)
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ISBN 978-1-4129-9981-6 (pbk. w/SPSS CD)
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1. Social problems—Research. 2. Social sciences—Research. I. Title.
HN29.S34 2012
361.1072—dc23 2011031279
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This book is printed on acid-free paper.
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Contents
About the Author xiv
Preface xv
Acknowledgments xx
1. Science, Society, and Social Research 1
2. The Process and Problems of Social Research 25
3. Research Ethics and Philosophies 63
4. Conceptualization and Measurement 93
5. Sampling 135
6. Research Design and Causation 171
7. Experiments 198
8. Survey Research 229
9. Qualitative Methods 280
10. Qualitative Data Analysis 320
11. Evaluation and Policy Research 358
12. Historical and Comparative Research 387
13. Secondary Data Analysis and Content Analysis 413
14. Quantitative Data Analysis 445
15. Summarizing and Reporting Research 492
Glossary 519
Appendix A: Questions to Ask About a Research Article 531
Appendix B: How to Read a Research Article 533
Appendix C: Table of Random Numbers 559
On the Study Site
Appendix D: How to Use a Statistical Package
Appendix E: Annotated List of Web Sites
Appendix F: Summaries of Frequently Cited Research Articles
Bibliography 565
Credits 591
Index 595
Detailed Contents
About the Author xiv (cid:2) SPSS EXERCISES 23
Preface xv (cid:2) DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL 24
Acknowledgments xx
2. The Process and Problems of
1. Science, Society, and
Social Research 25
Social Research 1
Social Research Questions 27
Learning About the Identifying Social Research
Social World 2 Questions 27
Avoiding Errors in Reasoning Refining Social Research Questions 28
About the Social World 5 Evaluating Social Research Questions 28
Observing 6 Feasibility 28
Generalizing 6 Social Importance 29
Reasoning 7 Scientific Relevance 29
Reevaluating 8 Social Research Foundations 29
Searching the Literature 30
Research in the News: Twitter Users
Reviewing Research 32
Flock Together 9
A Single-Article Review: Formal
Science and Social Science 9
and Informal Deterrents to
Motives for Social Research 11
Domestic Violence 33
Types of Social Research 12
An Integrated Literature Review: When
Descriptive Research 12
Does Arrest Matter? 35
Exploratory Research 13
Theoretical Perspectives for Social
Explanatory Research 14
Research 37
Evaluation Research 15
Social Research Strategies 39
Alternative Research Orientations 16
Quantitative and Qualitative Research in the News: Investigating Child
Methods 16 Abuse Doesn’t Reduce It 39
Basic Science or Applied Research 17 Explanatory Research 40
Strengths and Limitations of Social Deductive Research 40
Research 18 Domestic Violence and the Research
Conclusions 19 Circle 42
(cid:2) KEY TERMS 21 Inductive Research 44
(cid:2) HIGHLIGHTS 21 Exploratory Research 45
(cid:2) DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 22 Victim Responses to Police
(cid:2) PRACTICE EXERCISES 22 Intervention 46
(cid:2) ETHICS QUESTIONS 23 Battered Women’s Help Seeking 46
(cid:2) WEB EXERCISES 23 Descriptive Research 47
Social Research Goals 48 (cid:2) DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 91
Measurement Validity 48 (cid:2) PRACTICE EXERCISES 91
Generalizability 49 (cid:2) WEB EXERCISES 91
Causal Validity 51 (cid:2) DEVELOPING
Authenticity 51 A RESEARCH PROPOSAL 92
Social Research Proposals 51
Case Study: Treating Substance
4. Conceptualization and
Abuse 52
Measurement 93
Conclusions 58
(cid:2) KEY TERMS 59 Concepts 94
(cid:2) HIGHLIGHTS 59 Conceptualization
(cid:2) DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 60 in Practice 95
(cid:2) PRACTICE EXERCISES 60
Substance Abuse 95
(cid:2) ETHICS QUESTIONS 61
Youth Gangs 96
(cid:2) WEB EXERCISES 61
Poverty 97
(cid:2) SPSS EXERCISES 61
(cid:2) DEVELOPING Research in the News: How Poverty is
A RESEARCH PROPOSAL 62 Defined Matters 98
Trust 100
Operationalization 100
3. Research Ethics and
Abstract and Concrete Concepts 101
Philosophies 63
Operationalizing the Concept of
Race 102
Historical Background 66
Operationalizing the Concept of Intimate
Research in the News: Syphilis Experiments
Partner Violence 104
in Guatemala 66
From Observations to Concepts 105
Ethical Principles 68 Being “In” and “Out” 105
Achieving Valid Results 68 Diversity 106
Honesty and Openness 69 Measurement Operations 106
Protecting Research Using Available Data 107
Participants 70 Constructing Questions 108
Avoid Harming Research Making Observations 110
Participants 71 Collecting Unobtrusive Measures 111
Obtain Informed Consent 74 Combining Measurement Operations 112
Avoid Deception in Research, Except in Triangulation 114
Limited Circumstances 79 Levels of Measurement 114
Maintain Privacy and Nominal Level of Measurement 114
Confidentiality 80 Ordinal Level of Measurement 116
The Uses of Research 80 Interval Level of Measurement 117
Philosophical Issues 83 Ratio Level of Measurement 117
Positivism and Postpositivism 83 The Special Case of Dichotomies 118
Positivist Research Guidelines 84 Comparison of Levels of
Interpretivism and Constructivism 86 Measurement 119
Interpretivist/Constructivist Research Evaluating Measures 120
Guidelines 87 Measurement Validity 120
Scientific Paradigms 88 Face Validity 121
Conclusions 89 Content Validity 121
(cid:2) KEY TERMS 90 Criterion Validity 122
(cid:2) HIGHLIGHTS 90 Construct Validity 123
Reliability 124 Conclusions 166
Test-Retest Reliability 124 (cid:2) KEY TERMS 167
Interitem Reliability (Internal (cid:2) HIGHLIGHTS 167
Consistency) 125 (cid:2) DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 168
Alternate-Forms Reliability 125 (cid:2) PRACTICE EXERCISES 168
Interobserver Reliability 125 (cid:2) ETHICS QUESTIONS 169
Ways to Improve Reliability and (cid:2) WEB EXERCISES 169
Validity 126 (cid:2) SPSS EXERCISES 170
Conclusions 129 (cid:2) DEVELOPING
(cid:2) KEY TERMS 130 A RESEARCH PROPOSAL 170
(cid:2) HIGHLIGHTS 130
(cid:2) DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 131 6. Research Design and
(cid:2) PRACTICE EXERCISES 131
Causation 171
(cid:2) ETHICS QUESTIONS 133
(cid:2) WEB EXERCISES 133 Research Design Alternatives 172
(cid:2) SPSS EXERCISES 134 Units of Analysis 173
(cid:2) DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL 134 Individual and Group 173
Research in the News: Group
5. Sampling 135 Intelligence, Not Individuals’ Intelligence,
Improves Group Performance 174
Sample Planning 136
Define Sample Components and the The Ecological Fallacy and
Population 136 Reductionism 174
Evaluate Generalizability 138 Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal
Designs 175
Research in the News: Sample Polls Indicate
Cross-Sectional Designs 175
Latino Turnout Likely to Lag 139
Longitudinal Designs 177
Assess the Diversity of the Population 139 Quantitative or Qualitative Causal
Consider a Census 141 Explanations 182
Sampling Methods 142 Quantitative (Nomothetic) Causal
Probability Sampling Methods 144 Explanations 182
Simple Random Sampling 146 Qualitative (Idiographic) Causal
Systematic Random Sampling 148 Explanations 183
Stratified Random Sampling 148 Criteria for Nomothetic Causal
Cluster Sampling 152 Explanations 184
Probability Sampling Methods Association 187
Compared 153 Time Order 187
Nonprobability Sampling Methods 154 Experimental Designs 187
Availability Sampling 154 Nonexperimental
Quota Sampling 155 Designs 187
Purposive Sampling 157 Nonspuriousness 188
Snowball Sampling 157 Randomization 189
Lessons About Statistical Control 190
Sample Quality 158 Mechanism 190
Generalizability in Qualitative Context 192
Research 159 Conclusions 192
Sampling Distributions 161 (cid:2) KEY TERMS 193
Estimating Sampling Error 161 (cid:2) HIGHLIGHTS 193
Sample Size Considerations 165 (cid:2) DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 194
(cid:2) PRACTICE EXERCISES 195 Ethical Issues in Experimental
(cid:2) ETHICS QUESTIONS 196 Research 222
(cid:2) WEB EXERCISES 196 Deception 222
(cid:2) SPSS EXERCISES 196 Selective Distribution of Benefits 223
(cid:2) DEVELOPING Conclusions 224
A RESEARCH PROPOSAL 197 (cid:2) KEY TERMS 225
(cid:2) HIGHLIGHTS 225
7. Experiments 198 (cid:2) DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 226
(cid:2) PRACTICE EXERCISES 226
True Experiments 199 (cid:2) ETHICS QUESTIONS 227
Experimental and Comparison (cid:2) WEB EXERCISES 227
Groups 200 (cid:2) SPSS EXERCISES 227
Pretest and Posttest Measures 200 (cid:2) DEVELOPING
Randomization 202 A RESEARCH PROPOSAL 228
Research in the News: Nudge
8. Survey Research 229
the Vote 202
Survey Research in the Social
Limitations of True Experimental
Sciences 230
Designs 204
Attractions of Survey Research 230
Summary: Causality in True
Versatility 230
Experiments 205
Efficiency 231
Quasi-Experiments 206
Generalizability 231
Nonequivalent Control Group
The Omnibus Survey 232
Designs 206
Errors in Survey Research 233
Aggregate Matching 207
Writing Survey Questions 234
Individual Matching 208
Avoid Confusing Phrasing 234
Before-and-After Designs 209
Minimize the Risk of Bias 236
Summary: Causality in
Avoid Making Either Disagreement or
Quasi-Experiments 211
Agreement Disagreeable 238
Nonexperiments 212
Minimize Fence-Sitting and Floating 238
Ex Post Facto Control Group Designs 212
Maximize the Utility of Response
One-Shot Case Studies and Longitudinal
Categories 240
Designs 213
Combining Questions in Indexes 242
Summary: Causality in
Designing Questionnaires 244
Nonexperiments 214
Build on Existing Instruments 245
Validity in Experiments 214
Refine and Test Questions 246
Causal (Internal) Validity 214
Add Interpretive Questions 247
Selection Bias 215
Research in the News: The Bad
Differential Attrition 215
Endogenous Change 216 Mother Complex 248
External Events 217 Maintain Consistent Focus 249
Contamination 217 Order the Questions 249
Treatment Misidentification 218 Make the Questionnaire Attractive 251
Generalizability 219 Consider Translation 251
Sample Generalizability 219 Organizing Surveys 253
Factorial Surveys 219 Mailed, Self-Administered Surveys 254
External Validity 221 Group-Administered Surveys 258
Interaction of Testing and Telephone Surveys 258
Treatment 221 Reaching Sample Units 258