Iconography of Beliefs about the Afterlife and Evidence for Funerary Practices in Etruscan ...

273 Pages·2013·11.18 MB·English

Footsteps of the Dead: Iconography of Beliefs about
the Afterlife and Evidence for Funerary Practices in
Etruscan Tarquinia

Allison Jean Weir

This thesis is submitted in partial fulfilment for the degree of PhD
at the
University of St Andrews

5 November 2012
Declarations

1. Candidate’s declarations:

I, Allison Jean Weir, hereby certify that this thesis, which is approximately 80,000
words in length, has been written by me, that it is the record of work carried out by me
and that it has not been submitted in any previous application for a higher degree.

I was admitted as a research student in September 2008, and as a candidate for the
degree of Doctor of Philosophy in September 2009; the higher study for which this is a
record was carried out in the University of St Andrews between 2008 and 2012.

DATE: _________________ SIGNATURE OF CANDIDATE: ___________________

2. Supervisor’s declaration:

I hereby certify that the candidate has fulfilled the conditions of the Resolution and
Regulations appropriate for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the University of St
Andrews and that the candidate is qualified to submit this thesis in application for that
degree.

DATE: _________________ SIGNATURE OF SUPERVISOR: __________________

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Access to all of printed copy but embargo of all of electronic publication of thesis for a
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Abstract

This thesis is a study of Etruscan attitudes to the afterlife, based on analysis of
the funerary archaeology, architecture, and iconography of death from the ancient city
of Tarquinia. The focus on one settlement allowed for a more precise reconstruction of
funerary attitudes; it also avoided the pitfalls of approaching Etruscan civilisation as
uniform and homogeneous across its varied city-states; and it made clear when
particular beliefs about the afterlife changed or developed. After a general discussion of
approaches to the subject in the published literature and of the specific conditions at the
site of Tarquinia, it proceeds through a series of case studies chosen from each of the
major periods of Etruscan civilisation from the Villanovan to the Hellenistic period. The
analysis is based on published excavations and studies, supplemented by fieldwork
conducted in Rome and at Tarquinia. The case studies were chosen based on the type of
information that they can give about the way the underworld was imagined. No one
tomb can be used to illustrate the entire set of beliefs and traditions that occurred at one
time. Throughout the course of this study, I focus on the changes and developments of
funerary traditions over the nine centuries of Etruscan civilisation at Tarquinia.
The main finding to emerge from these studies relates to the long term stability
of funerary practices at Tarquinia. As elsewhere in Etruria, there are changes in the
scale and design of tombs and in the subjects and manner of their decoration. Yet it is
difficult to identify any sudden discontinuities of practice. In a number of cases, it is
argued that motifs that are well attested only in later periods can already be seen in the
earlier material, while few themes introduced into the repertoire are ever completely
lost. Rather, the same motifs are occasionally represented in different form from period
to period. Whether the explanation is to be sought in the conservative influence of a
small number of ruling families, or in the absence of social revolutions of the kind that
characterised some Greek poleis, or in a conscious desire to preserve local, i.e.
Tarquinian, traditions and styles, it seems that the history of Etruscan death is – in this
case at least – not to be written in terms of dramatic changes so much as of gradual
evolution and development. On this basis, a tentative account of the (local) Etruscan
underworld is offered as it emerges from material drawn from all the periods studied.
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Acknowledgements

This thesis was written with the help, support, and inspiration of a great number
of people. Whilst it would be impossible to name everyone, I would like to
acknowledge a few contributions. I would like to begin by thanking the Guthrie
Scholarship Fund, the Thomas and Margaret Rodden Trust, the Classical Association of
Canada Bursary Fund, and the Weidemann Trust Fund, and, of course, the University of
St Andrews for their generous financial support, without which I would not have been
able to embark on my studies, conduct first hand research in Italy, and present my
findings at conferences. In Rome, I am greatly indebted to Ms. Maria Pia Malvezzi and
the staff at the British School at Rome for their help and support during my time there.
In addition, I am also greatly indebted to the Soprintendenza Archeologica di Roma for
access to closed tombs at Tarquinia, Sarteano, as well as museums in Orvieto and
Rome. In addition, the School of Classics has provided the necessary facilities and
resources, as well as the essential administrative support from Irene Paulton, Margaret
Goudie, and Carol Wright.
Turning to academic matters now, I owe much to the advice and support of my
team of supervisors. Most especially, I am eternally grateful to my phenomenal
supervisor Greg Woolf, who ceaselessly supported me in all aspects of my studies. I
would also like to extend my gratitude to the rest of my team of primary supervisors,
Rebecca Sweetman, and last, but never least, the incomparable Jon Coulston.
Furthermore, thanks must be extended to my external supervisor Phil Perkins for a
wealth of great suggestions and many interesting discussions over Italian wine after
days of digging in the mud at Poggio Colla. Along similar lines, I would like to express
my gratitude to my examiners, Robert Leighton and Christopher Smith, without whom I
might never have discovered an interest in the Etruscans. I also owe thanks to the staff
in Classics at the University of St Andrews, most especially, Emma-Jayne Graham for
her invaluable assistance with many questions regarding the archaeology of death, as
well as Felix Racine. Thanks must also be extended to Vedia Izzet. Special mention
must also be made to my good friends Julietta Steinhauer and Elsbeth Hymes for their
friendship, support, and advice. I cannot fail to mention three people in particular from
my time as an undergraduate, Roland Jeffreys, Gregory MacIsaac, and last but not least,
Josh Beer from the College of the Humanities at Carleton Univeristy. Without Josh
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Beers’ fascinating and sometimes theatrical Latin classes I never would have gone into
Classics.
Of course, this thesis would never have been possible without the support of my
family. Firstly, I would like to thank my father, Bruce Weir, who not only has
supported me throughout the course of my long journey as a student, but whose skills
with computer photoshop programs was highly appreciated in creating the maps for this
thesis. Similarly, I would like to thank my mother Cynthia, my sister Elizabeth, my
mother-in-law Debbie, and my sister-in-law Heather and her husband Steve. And of
course my nephews and niece for whom I am “the best at digging up dead people and
dinosaurs.” And, last but not least, my most heartfelt thanks must be extended to my
dearest husband Trevor, for listening ad nauseam to my comments about Etruscan
funerary art and whose support and assistance was unceasing.
I would like to take this opportunity to dedicate this thesis to the memory of
three special individuals. First of all, my aunt Sophia Steadman, who fought for the
day when women would be allowed to go to university, let alone undertake
postgraduate studies, and always told me that I could be whatever I wanted. Secondly,
my grandmother Barb Weir, who was one of the kindest people I have ever met. And,
last but not least, my Annie Kuna, who always kept me company when I was working
in Canada and ensured that I refreshed my mind and got some exercise by taking her for
many walks a day.
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Table of Contents

LIST OF FIGURES & TABLES ............................................................................................................ XI
NOTE TO READER .................................................................................................................................. 1
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 3
I: SETTING THE SCENE: THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF DEATH AT TARQUINIA ................................................... 3
II: EXPOSITION OF THESIS ARGUMENT ..................................................................................................... 6
III: THESIS METHODOLOGY AND OUTLINE ............................................................................................... 9
IV: PREVIOUS SCHOLARSHIP .................................................................................................................. 10
V: TYPOLOGY OF BURIAL ....................................................................................................................... 12
CHAPTER II: THE VILLANOVAN PERIOD ..................................................................................... 17
I: INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................... 17
I.i: Funerary Evidence from Villanovan Graves ............................................................................... 18
I.ii: Case Studies ............................................................................................................................... 20
II: CASE STUDY 1, HOUSE URN FROM ARCATELLE CEMETERY .............................................................. 21
II.i: House Urns ................................................................................................................................. 21
II.ii: Poggio delle Arcatelle 2 House Urn .......................................................................................... 22
II.iii: Decoration of the Urn .............................................................................................................. 23
II.iv: The Tomb as the House of the Dead ........................................................................................ 25
II.v: Miniaturisation .......................................................................................................................... 26
III: CASE STUDY 2, HOUSE URN FROM SELCIATELLO ............................................................................. 27
III.i: Selciatello 45 House Urn .......................................................................................................... 27
III.ii: Decoration of the Urn .............................................................................................................. 28
IV: CASE STUDY 3, IMPICCATO TOMB I .................................................................................................. 31
IV.i: The Tomb ................................................................................................................................. 31
IV.ii: Grave Goods ............................................................................................................................ 33
IV.iii: Decoration on the Biconical Urn ............................................................................................ 34
IV.iv: The One Handled Biconical Urn ............................................................................................ 35
IV.v: Anthropomorphisation of the Biconical Urn ........................................................................... 36
IV.vi: Feast for the Dead ................................................................................................................... 38
V: CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................................................... 40
CHAPTER III: THE ORIENTALISING PERIOD .............................................................................. 41
I: INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................... 41
I.i: Funerary Evidence ....................................................................................................................... 42
I.ii: Non-Elite Burials........................................................................................................................ 44
I.iii: Case Studies .............................................................................................................................. 44
II: CASE STUDY 1, BOCCHORIS TOMB .................................................................................................... 45
II.i: The Tomb ................................................................................................................................... 45
II.ii: Grave goods and Foreign Contacts ........................................................................................... 46
II.iii: Funerary Banquets ................................................................................................................... 48
III: CASE STUDY 2, DOGANACCIA TUMULUS I ....................................................................................... 52
III.i: The Tomb and Doganaccia Necropolis ..................................................................................... 52
III.ii: Funeral Rites ............................................................................................................................ 53
IV: CASE STUDY 3, CIMA TUMULUS ...................................................................................................... 57
IV.i: The Cima Tumulus Complex ................................................................................................... 57
IV.ii: Domestic Architecture in a Funerary Setting .......................................................................... 59
IV.iii: Cult of the Dead ..................................................................................................................... 62
IV.iv: Orientation of the Cima Tomb ................................................................................................ 66
V: CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................................................... 69
CHAPTER IV: THE ARCHAIC PERIOD ............................................................................................ 71
I: INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................... 71
I.i: Funerary Evidence from Tombs and Cemeteries ........................................................................ 71
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I.ii: Tomb Painting ............................................................................................................................ 75
I.iii: Case Studies .............................................................................................................................. 76
II: CASE STUDY 1, TOMB OF THE BULLS ................................................................................................. 77
II.i: The Tomb ................................................................................................................................... 77
II.ii: Tomb Decoration ...................................................................................................................... 78
II.iii: Apotropaism ............................................................................................................................ 83
II.iv: Sea Journey .............................................................................................................................. 85
III: CASE STUDY 2, TOMB OF THE AUGURS ............................................................................................ 89
III.i: The Tomb ................................................................................................................................. 89
III.ii: Domestic Architecture in Tomb Form ..................................................................................... 90
III.iii: False Doors ............................................................................................................................. 90
III.iv: Funerary Games ...................................................................................................................... 95
IV: CASE STUDY 3, TOMB OF THE HUNTING AND FISHING ..................................................................... 98
IV.i: The Tomb ................................................................................................................................. 98
IV.ii: Funerary Banquets ................................................................................................................... 99
IV.iii: Depicting the Dead ............................................................................................................... 103
IV.iv: The Diver in the Tomb of the Hunting and Fishing.............................................................. 104
V: CASE STUDY 4, TOMB OF THE FUNERAL BED .................................................................................. 107
V.i: The Tomb................................................................................................................................. 107
V.ii: Funeral Rituals ........................................................................................................................ 109
V.iii: Temporary Funerary Structures ............................................................................................. 111
VI: CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................................................ 114
CHAPTER V: THE CLASSICAL PERIOD ........................................................................................ 115
I: INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................. 115
I.i: Funerary Evidence from Tombs ................................................................................................ 115
I.ii: Tomb Painting .......................................................................................................................... 117
I.iii: Case Studies ............................................................................................................................ 119
II: CASE STUDY 1, TOMB OF THE PULCELLA ........................................................................................ 120
II.i: The Tomb ................................................................................................................................. 120
II.ii: Shrine for the Dead ................................................................................................................. 122
III: CASE STUDY 2, TOMB OF THE BLUE DEMONS ................................................................................ 124
III.i: The Tomb ............................................................................................................................... 124
III.ii: Change in the Representation of Banquets ............................................................................ 126
III.iii: Journey to the Underworld Scene ......................................................................................... 129
IV: CASE STUDY 3, TOMB 2327 ........................................................................................................... 133
IV.i: The Tomb ............................................................................................................................... 133
IV.ii: Miniaturisation and Loculi .................................................................................................... 134
V: CASE STUDY 4, SARCOPHAGUS OF THE AMAZONS ........................................................................... 138
V.i: The Sarcophagus ...................................................................................................................... 138
V.ii: Painted Mythological Scenes on the Base .............................................................................. 142
V.iii: Miniaturisation and Domestic Architecture ........................................................................... 146
VI: CASE STUDY 5, TOMB OF THE SHIELDS .......................................................................................... 150
VI.i: The Tomb ............................................................................................................................... 150
VI.ii: Changes in Depictions of Banquets ....................................................................................... 153
VII: CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................................................... 156
CHAPTER VI: THE HELLENISTIC PERIOD ................................................................................. 159
I: INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................. 159
I.i: Funerary Evidence from Tombs ................................................................................................ 160
I.ii: Case Studies ............................................................................................................................. 161
II: CASE STUDY 1, ANINA TOMB I ........................................................................................................ 162
II.i: Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 162
II.ii: Tomb Form: Family Chamber Tombs .................................................................................... 163
II.iii: Burial in the Tomb and Subsequent Visitations ..................................................................... 165
II.iv: Banquet of the Dead ............................................................................................................... 166
II.v: Domestic Architecture in a Funerary Context ......................................................................... 169
II.vi: Psychopomps ......................................................................................................................... 169
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III: CASE STUDY 2, SARCOPHAGUS OF VELTHUR PARTUNUS ............................................................... 175
III.i: The Sarcophagus ..................................................................................................................... 175
III.ii: Banquet of the Dead .............................................................................................................. 177
III.iii: Domestic Architecture in a Funerary Context ...................................................................... 178
III.iv: Portraits ................................................................................................................................. 180
III.v: Apotropaism .......................................................................................................................... 182
III.vi: Mythological Scenes on the Base ......................................................................................... 185
III.vii: Etruscan Female Demons .................................................................................................... 188
III.viii: New Suggestion for the Roles of Vanth ............................................................................. 190
IV: CASE STUDY 3, TOMB OF THE MERCARECCIA ................................................................................ 192
IV.i: Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 192
IV.ii: Ancestor Cult ......................................................................................................................... 194
IV.iii: Domestic Architecture .......................................................................................................... 195
IV.iv: Procession ............................................................................................................................. 196
V: CASE STUDY 4, TOMB OF THE TYPHON ............................................................................................ 197
V.i: Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 197
V.ii: Ancestor Cult .......................................................................................................................... 198
V.iii: Domestic Architecture in a Funerary Setting ......................................................................... 199
V.iv: Apotropaism .......................................................................................................................... 199
V.v: Procession ............................................................................................................................... 200
V.vi: Demons .................................................................................................................................. 201
VI: CASE STUDY 5, BRUSCHI SARCOPHAGUS ....................................................................................... 202
VI.i: Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 202
VI.ii: Journey to the Underworld on Horseback ............................................................................. 203
VI.iii: City of the Dead ................................................................................................................... 204
VII: CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................................................... 206
CHAPTER VII: CONCLUSION .......................................................................................................... 209
I: INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................. 209
II: SUMMARY OF FINDINGS ................................................................................................................... 210
II.i: The Villanovan Period ............................................................................................................. 210
II.ii: The Orientalising Period ......................................................................................................... 211
II.iii: The Archaic Period ................................................................................................................ 212
II.iv: The Classical Period ............................................................................................................... 214
II.v: The Hellenistic Period ............................................................................................................. 216
III: FOOTSTEPS OF THE DEAD: THE JOURNEY TO THE UNDERWORLD .................................................... 217
IV: IMPLICATIONS FOR ETRUSCAN STUDIES ......................................................................................... 221
V: THE END OF ETRUSCAN TARQUINIA ................................................................................................ 222
APPENDIX I: PAINTED TOMBS FROM THE ARCHAIC PERIOD ............................................ 225
APPENDIX II: PAINTED TOMBS FROM THE CLASSICAL PERIOD ....................................... 229
APPENDIX III: PAINTED TOMBS FROM THE HELLENISTIC PERIOD ................................. 231
APPENDIX IV: VANTH AND CHARU .............................................................................................. 233
BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................................................. 241
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