ERIC EJ875392: Defining and Understanding Parentification: Implications for All Counselors

2008·0.22 MB·English

by  ERIC

Defining and Understanding Parentification:
Implications for All Counselors

Lisa M. Hooper
The University of Alabama

ABSTRACT
Defining Parentification
This article advances a balanced

discussion of the extent to which varied
Parentification is the distortion or lack
outcomes are evidenced in adulthood
of boundaries between and among
after one has been parentified in
family subsystems, such that children
childhood. Recommendations are
take on roles and responsibilities usually
provided that may help counselors avoid
reserved for adults (Boszormenyi-Nagy
the potential overpathologizing of clients
& Spark, 1973). That is, either explicitly
with a history of parentification.
or implicitly, parents create an
Suggestions for clinical practice are put
environment that fosters caretaking
forth for all counselors.
behaviors in their children that help
maintain homeostasis (i.e., balance) for
the family in general and the parent in
Parentification is a ubiquitous
particular. Above and beyond
phenomenon that most school,
maintaining homeostasis for the family,
community, and family counselors as
the responsibilities that are carried out
well as other human helpers face (Byng-
by the parentified child are traditionally
Hall, 2002). That is, most counselors are
behaviors that provide the parent with
likely to encounter both children and
the specific emotional and instrumental
adults who have a history of
support that the parent likely did not
parentification—a potential form of
receive while he or she was growing up
neglect (Boszormenyi-Nagy & Spark,
(Boszormenyi-Nagy & Spark,1973;
1973; Chase, 1999). What is
Minuchin, Montalvo, Guerney, Rosman,
parentification, and given its relationship
& Schumer, 1967). Thus, the child must
with negative outcomes and behaviors,
be emotionally available for the parent,
what can counselors do to avoid
even though the parent is often
overpathologizing the client’s signs,
emotionally unavailable for the child,
symptoms, and behaviors associated
which may engender a chronic state of
with parentification? This paper offers a
anxiety and distress in some emotionally
review of what clinical practitioners and
parentified children (Bowen, 1978;
researchers have described in the
Briere, 1992; Cicchetti, 2004). The
literature. Subsequent to a brief review
clinical literature has also reported that
of the literature, suggestions regarding
the breakdown in the generational
practice efforts directed toward clients
hierarchy may rob the child of activities
who have experienced parentification are
that are developmentally appropriate; the
put forward.
child instead participates in either
instrumental or emotional caregiving
behaviors directed toward parents,
siblings, or both that may go unrewarded
and unrecognized (Boszormenyi-Nagy
3D5efDineifningi nangd a nUdn dUenrdsetarnstdainndgi nPga rPeanrteifnictaiftiicoanti o n
& Spark,1973; Jurkovic, 1997; Kerig, positive outcomes associated with
2005; Minuchin et al.,1967). Some parentification.
research and practitioners contend that to
fully understand the aftereffects of Understanding Parentification: The
parentification, the type of Negative and Positive Effects of
parentification (i.e., emotional and Parentification
instrumental) experienced in the family
Established Negative Effects. Studies in
must be assessed (Jurkovic, 1997).
the last 30 years have established a
relationship between parentification and
Emotional parentification is the
later maladjustment. Researchers have
participation in the “socioemotional
found linkages from early childhood
needs of family members and the family
stress/trauma to child and parent factors
as a whole” (Jurkovic, Morrell, &
such as divorce (Wallerstein, 1985),
Thirkield, 1999, p. 94). Behaviors
parental alcohol and drug use (Bekir,
described by Jurkovic and colleagues
McLellan, Childress, & Gariti, 1993),
include, “serving as a confidant,
disruption in attachment (Zeanah &
companion, or mate-like figure,
Zeanah, 1989), family discord, low
mediating family conflict, and providing
socioeconomic status (Boszormenyi-
nurturance and support” (p. 94).
Nagy & Spark, 1973; Minuchin et al.,
Instrumental parentification is the
1967), depression, and attachment and
participation in the “physical
relational difficulties (Jones & Wells,
maintenance and sustenance of the
1996).
family” (Jurkovic et al., 1999, p. 94).
Behaviors described by Jurkovic and
The effects of childhood parentification
colleagues include, grocery shopping,
can be long-lasting, multigenerational,
cooking, housecleaning, and
and deleterious, presenting over the
performance of daily duties that involve
course of a lifetime (Chase, 1999;
caring for parents and siblings” (p. 94).
Karpel, 1976; West & Keller, 1991). For
young adults, parentification can impede
Of significance to counselors and other
“normal” development related to
mental health practitioners, not all
relationship building, personality
children who are parentified will
formation, and other developmentally
experience negative aftereffects (Byng-
critical processes (Burt, 1992; Goglia,
Hall, 2002; DiCaccavo, 2006; Earley &
Jurkovic, Burt, & Burge-Callaway,
Cushway, 2002; Tompkins, 2007). In
1992; Sessions & Jurkovic, 1986;
fact, approximately only one-fourth of
Wolkin, 1984). Valleau, Bergner, and
all children who experience neglect will
Horton (1995) found that children who
go on to experience negative aftereffects
are parentified have significantly more
(Alexander, 1992; Cicchetti & Toth,
“caretaker characteristics” in adulthood
1995; Golden, 1999; Toth & Cicchetti,
than do those children who are not
1996; West & Keller, 1991). The next
parentified. Similarly, Jones and Wells
section takes a less myopic view of the
(1996) found an association between
potential aftereffects of parentification
personality characteristics such as
often reported in the literature. The
“people pleasing” and adults who had
following section includes a brief review
been parentified. Further, their study,
of the research base of both negative and
comprising 208 undergraduate students
The Alabama Counseling Association Journal, Volume 34, Number1, Spring 2008
DefinDinegfi nainndg Uanndde Ursntdaenrdsitnagn dPianrge nPtaifriecnattiifoicna tion 36
from a large Midwestern university, experienced when a situation or
found that participants who were environment is perceived as being
destructively parentified as children overwhelming, threatening, and too
often relate to others in problematic, much for the individual (Briere, 1992;
overfunctioning, caretaking ways. Lazarus & Folkman, 1984), or when a
chronically stressful situation becomes
Domains like separating from the family unrelenting and the individual is unable
of origin, participating in age- to adapt and cope with the experience in
appropriate behaviors (Olson & Gariti, a healthy functional way (Brewin,
1993), engaging in academic pursuits, Andrews, & Gotlib, 1993; Werner,
and developing self-esteem can also be 1990).
affected (Bekir et al., 1993; Chase,
Demming, & Wells, 1998). Other Parentification can therefore be
aftereffects may include mental illness in characterized as a traumatic event and an
general, and depression, anxiety, adverse process, in accord with the
substance abuse, and dependence definitions and criteria put forward in the
disorders in particular. For example, family and trauma literature, that have
Chase et al. (1998) found relationships long-lasting effects experienced in
between high levels of parentification adulthood (Belsky, 1990; Briere, 1992;
and academic achievement and parental Chase, 1999; Cicchetti, 2004). Further,
use of alcohol. These findings are extant literature on parentification has
consistent with multiple studies that shown that the process is in fact adverse
have established a relationship between for most children and that it can later be
parentification and alcohol use by at linked to poor adult functioning. The
least one parent or guardian (Bekir et process of childhood parentification can,
al.,1993; Goglia et al., 1992). Bekir et al. in the adults those children become,
concluded that adults who abuse alcohol produce a fear of having children and/or
or drugs are often unable to perform lead to the transmission of
their parental duties and that, therefore, parentification across many generations
the parentified child is often left to care (Boszormenyi-Nagy & Spark, 1973;
for self, siblings, and parents. Bekir et al. Bowen, 1978; Chase et al., 1998).
also found that the parentified child is
Potential Positive Effects
often inclined to repeat the same
behaviors as an adult with his or her own
children. Borderline personality and Because of the trauma often related to
dissociative disorders, although rare, can the parentification process (e.g.,
be evidenced in extreme cases of this significant distress, adversity,
phenomenon (Cicchetti, 2004; Liotti, dissociation, and even suicide [Jurkovic,
1992; Wells & Jones, 2000; Widom, 1997; Markowitz, 1994), research has
1999). tended to focus on psychopathology and
As previously mentioned, neglect other negative outcomes (Barnett &
such as parentification can be and often Parker, 1998; Walker & Lee, 1998).
is traumatic for a child as well as for the There is a dearth of research discussing
adult he or she becomes (Aldridge, positive outcomes after childhood
2006; Alexander, 1992; Chase, 1999; parentification. One of the few studies to
Jurkovic, 1998). Trauma is often do so, conducted by Jurkovic and Casey
The Alabama Counseling Association Journal, Volume 34, Number 1, Spring 2008
37 Defining and Understanding Parentification
Defining and Understanding Parentification
(2000), reported on the linkage between from these studies (Jurkovic &
emotional parentification and Casey,2000; Thirkield,2002) provide
interpersonal competence among Latino preliminary support showing that (a)
adolescents. That study’s findings benefits may be engendered by the
suggested that higher levels of emotional parentification process, and (b) benefits
parentification are predictive of higher may last over time.
levels of interpersonal competence. On
In a more recent study conducted by
the other hand, adolescents who
Walsh, Zvulun, Bar-On, & Tsur (2006)
experience low levels of emotional
they examined the extent to which the
parentification—in a family system in
parentification process may be
which they perceive the parentification
associated with positive factors among
process (i.e., the assignment of and the
adolescent immigrants. In their study
responsibility to carry out parent like
they found parentification was related to
duties) to be unfair—also experience
positive outcomes such as high levels of
low levels of competence. Jurkovic and
individuation and differentiation from
Casey concluded that parentification has
the family system. They also found
the potential to promote competence.
when adolescent immigrants and non-
Additionally, they suggested that
immigrants perceived their roles and
potentially critical to positive outcomes
responsibilities as fair and age
after parentification is the degree to
appropriate the outcome was positive:
which the child perceived the process to
sense of mastery and competence. Thus
be fair. In the context of a family system
they concluded the provision of parent-
where children have reported that the
like roles and responsibilities among the
parentification process was “fair” also
study sample engendered individual
reported that their parent-like behaviors
autonomy, self-mastery, and family
and responsibilities did not go unnoticed
cohesion. McMahon and Luthar (2007)
and they carried out those
also found a relationship between
responsibilities for brief periods of time.
psychosocial adjustment and
parentification. Of significance, and in
support of divergent findings related to
Of significance, a family system absent
childhood parentification and adult
of parentification may prevent some
outcomes, McMahon and Luthar
children of the skills and abilities they
contend this process and its associated
could use across domains and
outcomes are multidetermined and
throughout their lives—although more
multifactorial, even in the context of
research is needed to clarify and support
severe, long-standing levels of
this assertion. Towards this end, in
parentification. For example, among
Thirkield’s (2002) study examining the
their study sample of children living in
relationship between instrumental
poverty, the researchers failed to find a
parentification in childhood and
significant, stable relationship between
interpersonal competence in adulthood, a
parentification and poor outcomes.
significant positive linear relationship
was obtained. Thirkield also found a
positive relationship between age, Discussion
positive outcomes (operationalized as
interpersonal competence), and Given the overwhelming findings
instrumental parentification. Findings regarding negative outcomes, counselors
The Alabama Counseling Association Journal, Volume 34, Number1, Spring 2008
DefinDinegfi nainndg Uanndde Ursntdaenrdsitnagn dPianrge nPtaifriecnattiifoicna tion 38
may be inclined to delimit their exhibited in both childhood and
therapeutic encounters to investigations adulthood.
that look for the negative outcomes often Also, as asserted in the parentification
seen among this population (DiCaccavo, literature (Chase, 1999; Jurkovic, 1997,
2006; Earley & Cushway, 2002; Kerig, 1998; Minuchin et al., 1967), how long
2005). This potential overpathologizing the stressor was related to providing
among counselors (Barnett & Parker, caregiving to the parent and sibling is
1998; Hooper, 2007) could result in also a contributing factor for those
missed opportunities to uncover children who carry out the parentified
exceptions, that is, when positive skills role in their family of origin. Those who
and coping strategies are experienced. perform this role for short periods of
Consistent with a wellness, strength- time may perceive the role as less
based counseling framework, counselors overwhelming, stressful, or traumatic
should assess for clients’ strengths—if than will others (Byng-Hall, 2002;
any—derived from the parentification Saakvitne & Tennen, 1998; Tedeschi &
process and infuse them into the Calhoun, 1995). Finally, from a
counseling and treatment planning developmental perspective, older
process. Therefore, the advantage of the children are likely to feel more equipped
application of the counseling wellness to take on the caregiving role than
framework—as compared to a deficit or younger children, thereby influencing
medical model framework—is that it growth or distress outcomes associated
allows for the explication of differential to the parentification process.
outcomes—both negative and positive—
associated with parentification All counselors should consider the
(DiCaccavo,2006; Hooper,2007; following points when working with
Jurkovic, 1997; Mayseless , et al., clients who have a history of
2004). parentification.
In the case of potential neglect, such as
1. First, consider that not all clients who
parentification, many factors, as
are parentified experience negative
previously described, may contribute to
sequlae that are often reported in the
the same event or process leading to
clinical and research literature (Barnett
divergent outcomes. For example,
& Parker, 1998; Byng-Hall, 2002;
parentification can be perceived as
Jurkovic, 1997; Jurkovic & Casey, 2000;
traumatic, as stressful but not traumatic,
McMahon & Luthar, 2007; Thirkield,
or as a regular, even an anticipated
2002; Tompkins, 2007).
cultural event in the course of daily
living (Walsh, et al., 2006). To this end,
2.Consider how long the parentification
a large body of trauma literature has
process has been going on. The resultant
suggested that the number of stressors
aftereffects may be different for clients
has more to do with the outcome or
for whom the process is brief and
aftereffects than does a particular
temporary as compared to long and
stressor itself (Waller, 2001). Thus, in
chronic (DiCaccavo, 2006; Tompkins,
the case of parentification, the number of
2007). Shorter brief episodes of
stressors may influence the outcome
parentification may foster competency
and self-efficacy in the client rather than
The Alabama Counseling Association Journal, Volume 34, Number 1, Spring 2008
3D9efDineifningi nagn da nUdn dUenrdsetarsntdainndgi nPga rPeanrteifnictiafitcioanti o n
pathological, poor outcomes (McMahon 9.Involve the family if possible.
& Luthar, 2007). Education may be all the family needs to
help the client and family restore or
3.Consider the age of the client. The
reestablish the appropriate boundaries
aftereffects are likely to be different for
where the child (if working with a child
a younger child who is parentified as
or adolescent) has a safe, appropriate
compared to an older adolescent
context to grow, learn, differentiate, and
(Kaplow & Widon, 2007; Walsh et al.,
thrive (Walsh et al., 2006).
2006).
10.Consider a referral. Depending on the
4.Determine if the parentification
context in which a counselor works, and
process is delimited to instrumental,
the extent and level of adversity
emotional, or both. The research
associated with the parentification
suggests emotional parentification may
process, specific trauma-based
be more deleterious than instrumental
counseling (Calhoun & Tedeschi, 1999)
parentification (Hooper, 2007;
may be indicated.
McMahon & Luthar, 2007; Tompkins,
2007). Summary
5.Consider the cultural and familial
Counselors and researchers have long
context in which the client is embedded.
demonstrated a clear awareness of the
For example, how do the family and
deleterious effects of parentification in
people who adopt the client’s culture
general (Chase, 1999; Jurkovic, 1997;
perceive the parentification process
Mayseless, Bartholomew, Henderson, &
(Jurkovic, et al., 2001; Walsh, et al.,
Trinke, 2004). On the other hand, and at
2006)? Is the parentification process
the same time, Barnett and Parker
culturally expected and valued?
(1998) concurred with Boszormenyi-
Nagy and Spark (1973) that it may in
6.Consider using a questionnaire to
fact be maladaptive to avoid or miss out
capture the level, type, and perceived
on any parental roles in the family of
fairness of parentification (e.g., Jurkovic
origin—in that many lessons for
& Thirkield, 1998, for child and adult
adulthood and parenthood are derived
instruments).
from family-related roles and
7.Examine to what extent the client feels responsibilities (i.e., parentification)
the parentification process is “fair.” during childhood. Recently, Barnett and
Again, research suggests if the process is Parker (1998) have questioned whether
perceived to be “fair” then it is often parentification leads to early competence
associated with fewer negative outcomes or childhood deprivation. Similarly, one
(Jurkovic, et al., 1999). of the “founding fathers” (Boszormenyi-
Nagy) of the construct of parentification
8.There may be strengths engendered by reminded counselors, theorists,
the parentification process (Hooper, researchers, and the like that “the term
2007; Tompkins, 2007). Thus it may be describes a ubiquitous and important
helpful to explore both positive and aspect of most human relationships. It is
negative aspects of the parentification suggested that parentification should not
process. be unconditionally ascribed to the realm
of ‘pathology’ or relational dysfunction.
The Alabama Counseling Association Journal, Volume 34, Number1, Spring 2008
DefinDienfgin ainngd aUnndd eUrnsdtaenrsdtianngd Pinagre Pnatirfeicnatitfiiocna t ion 40
Belsky, J. (1990). Parental and
It [parentification] is a component of the nonparental child care and children’s
regressive core of even balanced, socioemotional development: A decade
sufficiently reciprocal relationships” in review. Journal of Marriage, 52, 885-
(Boszormenyi-Nagy & Spark, 1973, p. 903.
151)(cid:139)(cid:3)
Boszormenyi-Nagy, I., & Spark, G.
AUTHOR NOTE (1973). Invisible loyalties: Reciprocity in
intergenerational family therapy.
Correspondence regarding the Hagerstown, MD: Harper & Row.
manuscript should be directed to: Lisa
M. Hooper, Ph.D., Department of Bowen, M. (1978). Family therapy in
Educational Studies in Psychology, clinical practice. New York: Jason
Research Methodology, and Counseling, Aronson.
The University of Alabama, Box
870231, Tuscaloosa, Alabama 35487- Brewin, C., Andrews, B., & Gotlib, I.
0231. Email: [email protected] (1993). Psychopathology and early
experience: A reappraisal of
REFERENCES retrospective reports. Psychological
Bulletin, 13(1), 82-98.
Aldridge, J. (2006). The experiences of
children living with and caring for Briere, J. (1992). Child abuse trauma:
parents with mental illness. Child Abuse Theory and treating of the lasting
Review, 15, 79-88. effects. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Alexander, P. C. (1992). Application of Burt, A. (1992). Generation boundary
attachment theory to the study of sexual distortion: Implications for object
abuse. Journal of Consulting & Clinical relations development. Unpublished
Psychology, 60, 185-195. doctoral dissertation, Georgia State
University, Atlanta, GA.
Barnett, B., & Parker, G. (1998). The
parentified child: Early competence or Byng-Hall, J. (2002). Relieving
childhood deprivation. Child Psychology parentified children’s burden in families
& Psychiatry Review, 3(4), 146-154. with insecure attachment patterns.
Family Process, 41, 375-388.
Bekir, P., McLellan, T., Childress, A. R.,
& Gariti, P. (1993). Role reversals in Calhoun, L. G. & Tedeschi, R. G.
families of substance abusers: A (1999). Facilitating posttraumatic
transgenerational phenomenon. The growth: A clinician’s guide. Mahwah,
International Journal of the Addictions, NJ: Lawerence Erlbaum.
28(6), 613-630.
Carver, C. (1998). Resilience and
thriving: Issues, models, and linkages.
Journal of Social Issues, 54(2), 245-267.
The Alabama Counseling Association Journal, Volume 34, Number 1, Spring 2008
4D1efDineifningi nagn da nUdn dUenrdsetarsntdainndgi nPga rPeanrteifnictiafticioanti o n
Chase, N. (1999). An overview of Hooper, L. M. (2007). Expanding the
theory, research, and societal issues. In discussion regarding parentification and
N. Chase (Ed.), Burdened children (pp. its varied outcomes: Implications for
3-33). New York: The Guilford Press. mental health research and practice.
Journal of Mental Health Counseling,
Chase, N., Demming, M., & Wells, M. 29(2), 322-337.
(1998). Parentification, parental
alcoholism, and academic status among Jones, R., & Wells, M. (1996). An
young adults. The American Journal of empirical study of parentification and
Family Therapy, 25, 105-114. personality. The American Journal of
Family Therapy, 24, 145-152.
Cicchetti, D. (2004). An odyssey of
discovery: Lessons learned through three Jurkovic, G. J. (1997). The plight of the
decades of research on child parentified child. New York: Brunner
maltreatment. American Psychologist, Mazel Inc.
59, 4-14.
Jurkovic, G. J. (1998). Destructive
Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. (1995). A parentification in families: Causes and
developmental psychopathology consequences. In L. L’Abate (Ed.),
perspective on child abuse and neglect. Family psychopathology (pp.
Journal of American Academy of Child 237-255). New York: The Guilford
Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 541-565. Press.

DiCaccavo, A. (2006). Working with Jurkovic, G. J., & Casey, S. (2000,
parentification: Implications for clients March). Parentification in immigrant
and counselling psychologists. Latino adolescents. Presentation in G. P.
Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Kuperminc (Chair), Proyecto Juventud:
Research and Practice, 79, 469-478. A Multidisciplinary Study of Immigrant
Latino Adolescents, symposium
Earley, L., & Cushway, D. J. (2002). conducted at the meeting of the Society
The parentified child. Clinical Child for Applied Anthropology, San
Psychology and Psychiatry, 7, 163-178. Francisco, CA.

Goglia, L., Jurkovic, G., Burt, A., & Jurkovic, G. J., & Thirkield, A. (1998).
Burge-Callaway, C. (1992). Parentification questionnaire.
Generational boundary distortions by (Available from G. J. Jurkovic,
adult children of alcoholics: Child-as- Department of Psychology, Georgia
parent and child-as-mate. The American State University, University Plaza,
Atlanta, GA 30303)
Journal of Family Therapy, 20, 291-299.
Golden, O. (1999). The federal response Jurkovic, G. J., Morrell, R., & Thirkield,
to child abuse and neglect. American (1999). Assessing childhood
Psychologist, 55, 1050-1053. parentification: Guidelines for
researchers and clinicians. In N. Chase
(Ed.), Burdened children (pp. 92-113).
New York: The Guilford Press.
The Alabama Counseling Association Journal, Volume 34, Number1, Spring 2008
DefinDinegfi nainndg Uanndd eUrnstdaenrdsitnagn dPinarge Pntairfiecnattiifoicna tion 42
Minuchin, S., Montalvo, B., Guerney,
Kaplow, J. B. & Widom, C. S. (2007). B., Rosman, B., & Schumer, F. (1967).
Age of onset of child maltreatment Families of the slums. New York: Basic
predicts long-term mental health Books.
outcomes. Journal of Abnormal
Psychology, 116(1), 176-187. Olson, M., & Gariti, P. (1993). Symbolic
loss in horizontal relating: Defining the
Karpel, M. (1976). Intrapsychic and role of parentification in
interpersonal processes in the addictive/destructive relationships.
parentification of children. Contemporary Family Therapy, 15(3),
Dissertation Abstracts International, 38, 197-208.
365. (UMI No. 77-15090)
Kerig, P. (2005). Revisiting the construct Saakvitne, K. W., & Tennen, H. (1998).
of boundary dissolution: A Exploring thriving in the context of
multidimensional perspective. Journal of clinical trauma theory: Constructivist
Emotional Abuse, 5. 5-42. self-development theory. Journal of
Social Issues, 54, 279-300.
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984).
Stress, appraisal, and coping. New Sessions, M. W., & Jurkovic, G. J.
York: Springer Publishing. (1986). The parentification
Liotti,G.(1992). Diorganized/disoriented questionnaire. (Available from Gregory
attachment in the etiology of the J. Jurkovic, Department of Psychology,
dissociative disorders. Dissociation, 4, Georgia State University, University
196-204. Plaza, Atlanta, GA 30303)
Markowitz, F. (1994). Family dynamics Tedeschi, R. G., & Calhoun, L. G.
and teenage immigrant: Creating the self (1995). Trauma and transformation.
through the parents’ image. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Adolescence,29, 151-161.
Thirkield, A. (2002). The role of fairness
Mayseless, O., Bartholomew, K., in emotional and social outcomes of
Henderson, A., & Trinke, S. (2004). I childhood filial responsibility.
was more her mom than she was mine: Unpublished doctoral dissertation,
Role reversal in a community sample. Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA.
Family Relations, 53, 78-86. (UMI No. 3036391)

McMahon, T. J., & Luthar, S. S. (2007). Tompkins, T. L. (2007). Parentification
Defining characteristics and potential and maternal HIV infection: Beneficial
consequences of caretaking burden role or pathological burden. Journal of
among children living in poverty. Child and Family Studies, 16, 113-123.
American Journal of Orthopsychiatry,
77(2), 267-281.

The Alabama Counseling Association Journal, Volume 34, Number 1, Spring 2008
4D3efDineifningi nangd a nUdn dUenrdsetarnstdainndgi nPga rPeanrteifnictaiftiicoanti o n
Toth, S. L., & Cicchetti, D. (1996). West, M. L., & Keller, A. E. (1991).
Patterns of relatedness, depressive Parentification of the child: A case study
symptomatology, and perceived of Bowlby’s compulsive care-giving
competence in maltreated children. attachment pattern. American Journal of
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychotherapy, 45, 425-431.
Psychology, 64(1), 32-41.
Widom, C. S. (1999). Posttraumatic
Valleau, P. M., Bergner, R. M., & stress disorder in abused and neglected
Horton, C. B. (1995). Parentification and children grown up. American Journal of
caretaker syndrome: An empirical Psychiatry, 156(8), 1223-1229.
investigation. Family Therapy, 22, 157-
164.
Wolkin, J. (1984). Childhood
Walker, J. P., & Lee, R. E. (1998). parentification: An exploration of long-
Uncovering strengths of children of term effects. Unpublished doctoral
alcoholic parents. Journal of dissertation, Georgia State University,
Contemporary Family Therapy, 20(4) Atlanta, GA. (UMI No. 912254)
521-533.
Zeanah, C. H., & Zeanah, P. D. (1989).
Waller, M. A. (2001). Resilience in Intergenerational transmission of
ecosystemic context: Evolution of the maltreatment: Insights from
concept. American Journal of attachment theory and research.
Orthopsychiatry, 71(3), 290-297. Psychiatry, 52, 177-196.

Wallerstein, S. S. (1985, March-April).
The overburdened child: Some long-
term consequences of divorce. Social
Work, 116-123.

Walsh, S., Shulman, S., Bar-on, Z., &
Tsur, A. (2006). The role of
parentification and family climate in
adaptation among immigrants in Israel.
Journal of Research on Adolescence, 16,
321-350.

Werner, E. E. (1990). Protective factors
and individual resilience. In S. Meisels
& J. Shonkoff (Eds.), Handbook of early
childhood intervention. New York:
Cambridge University Press.

Wells, M., & Jones, R. (2000). Childhood
parentification and shame-proneness: A
preliminary study. American Journal of
FamilyTherapy,28(1),19-28.

The Alabama Counseling Association Journal, Volume 34, Number1, Spring 2008