Table Of ContentSchool Leader
:
as Negotiator
By David Stovall
In the attempt to gage innovative ap- with our work with young people. Research- as ever-silenced because it has been en-
proaches to school leadership, the following ers and community organizations fre- gaged superficially at the system level, but
account seeks to investigate the possible quently experience school leaders as is often diluted with buzz-speak (e.g., “di-
application of Critical Race Theory (CRT gatekeepers focused on protecting their versity,” “multiculturalism,” “tolerance,”
hereafter) to school leadership. Expound- employment instead of addressing issues “color-blindness”). High-stakes testing re-
ing on Solorzano and Villalapando’s appli- central to meeting educational needs. places socially conscious, community-cen-
cation of CRT (1997), the hope is to engage Administrators become de facto ad- tered approaches and becomes the measure
the field of school leadership with construc- versaries, responsible for maintaining bu- for student excellence. Vouchers are argued
tive critique and suggestions for adminis- reaucracy while performing the responsi- as a viable solution for failing schools in the
trators who are dedicated to social justice bilities mandated by the central office. Due urban setting. The school leader, responsible
and the well-being of students and staff. to our (students, parents, teachers, re- for reporting to central office, now is feder-
In turn, the following pages seek to ad- searchers, etc.) own duties and responsi- ally mandated to raise test scores and can
dress the question: How can CRT, as theory bilities, we are often unaware of the often be removed for failing to do so.
based in resistance to racial oppression, pressure-filled world in which school lead- At this moment, it’s fair to say that
inform praxis for school leaders? While it ers reside. social justice agendas in schools are a hard
is important to incorporate the needs of Although this does not excuse the sell. It’s considerably easier to do what
all students in schools, the following text school leader that chooses to administrate you’re told. Going “against the grain” is not
will have urban schools in communities of in absentia or the domineering tyrant un- received with accolades of achievement. In
color as its central focus. able to make adjustments, we must recog- sum, school administrators with a social
nize the various pressures school leaders justice agenda find themselves immersed
The Dilemma: endure in addition to the demands placed in the balancing act of meeting the needs
School Leader vs. the World on students and teachers. As a teacher/re- of students, while resisting mandated
searcher who performs most of his work in “drill-and-kill” policies that only measure
Frankly speaking, because schools are
schools, I was unaware of the fiduciary re- how well a student takes a test.
contested spaces, principals and adminis-
sponsibilities of the school principal. I also In addition, the school leader is often
trators are often easy targets. As teach-
had no clue as to the significance of the forced to accept the harsh realities of race
ers, we are often hounded by principals for
seemingly countless meetings principals and racism in urban settings. Never to be-
not turning in what we feel to be benign
were required to attend outside of those moan the point, the facts remain: the vast
paperwork that has little to nothing to do
with students, parents or teachers. In short, majority of urban public school settings are
the job is rigorous. If the occupation is per- populated with students of color. The over-
David Stovall formed at its highest level, the results are whelming majority of these students of
is an assistant professor often long days and short nights. color come from racially isolated commu-
in the Department of Policy Studies From here, the school leader is faced nities. Many of these communities have
of the College of Education with another challenge in the urban setting: soaring populations of low-income fami-
at the University of Illinois at Chicago. the ever-silenced issue of race. I refer to it lies.
MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION
8
Critical Race Theory,
Praxis,
and the Creation
of Productive Space
Where schools are viewed as safe-ha- many of the same issues that conven- Although its beginnings are in legal
vens for mainstream communities, they tional civil rights and ethnic studies dis- scholarship, it has since been adjusted to
courses take up, but places them in a
can often be viewed as menacing, mock address education. Its relevance for the
broader perspective that includes eco-
holding cells for others. Most situations school administrator comes in the form of
nomics, history, context, group and self-
are somewhere in between. Without over- developing a lens by which to unpack and
interest, and even feelings and the un-
exaggerating the situation, the social-jus- conscious. Unlike traditional civil rights, address issues of race and racism internal
tice minded administrator is often given which embraces incrementalism and and external to the school setting. In doing
the task of navigating these spaces, at- step-by-step progress, critical race theory so, five tenets of CRT presented by
tempting to make the school a productive questions the very foundations of the lib- Solorzano and Villalapando (1997) would
space to learn and create. eral order…. (Delagado 2001, p. 3) assist the school leader in grappling with
From it we are able to view racism as not race and racism in schools.
Critical Race Theory and Education the isolated actions of an individual, but a
1. The centrality and intersection-
The aforementioned drives a particu- systemic structure that disadvantages
ality of racism.
lar question set to the school leader that many based on a set of socially constructed
2. The challenge to dominant ideology.
recognizes the detrimental effects educa- norms.
tional policy can have on communities of In education, CRT confronts the ratio- 3. The commitment to social justice.
color. What thought processes guide the nale of “when I see a child, I don’t see race.”
4. The importance of experiential
school leader in creating a space that “en- Although not a popular stance, the previ-
knowledge.
gages students in a quest to identify ob- ous quote should be dissected. Critical
stacles to their full humanity?” (Ayers Race Theory understands the previous ide- 5. The use of an interdisciplinary
1999, p. xvii). Can a theory develop a ques- ology as part of a design to “maintain a perspective. (Solorzano & Villala-
tion set by which to assist the school leader White supremacist master script” (Ladson- pando 1997, p.213)
in navigating the racial terrain of urban Billings1998, p.18).
Although conservative factions may reduce
public education? Where some may view the children
racism to individual acts of bigotry, there
To assist such recognition, CRT can quote as naïve, CRT argues it to be reflec-
is sufficient evidence supporting the con-
be used as a tool to aid the school leader in tive of an accepted hegemonic norm, detri-
trary. For those who still may have doubts
developing praxis to confront issues of race mental to the education of students of color.
about the systemic intersections of race, I
and racism. For the remainder of this ac- Race, although socially constructed, has
offer the 1999 example of Decatur, Illinois,
count, the CRT movement should be un- “real-life” consequences in many commu-
and Glenbrook North High School in 2003.
derstood as the following: nities. The idea that someone can ignore
The former involved seven African-
the fact that assumptions based on per-
…a collection of activists and scholars American males who were attending
ception and physical appearance have sys-
interested in studying and transform- Eisenhower High School in Decatur, Illi-
temically denied access to people of color
ing the relationship among race, racism, nois. During a football game in October of
and power. The movement considers is problematic. that year, an altercation ensued that was
WINTER 2004
9
captured on videotape. Although there were nets, CRT theorists engage narrative to policy such as the former is in existence,
no reported injuries, the seven students support “counterstories” to popular dis- what racial/ethnic group accounts for the
implicated in the fight were barred from course surrounding race. Although debated majority of arrests, and where do the ma-
attending schools in Decatur for two years. in legal scholarship as highly subjective, jority of these arrests take place? In Chi-
With ensuing protests headed by Jesse counterstory is rooted in the experience of cago, from 1992-1995, 42,000 arrests were
Jackson Sr. and the Rainbow Coalition, the deliverer. made and 89,000 dispersal orders were
students were allowed to attain their high From here, stories diverge from the issued (p. 103). Of these arrests and dis-
school diplomas. During the ordeal, local “we’re all immigrants” ideology promoted persal orders, the majority of detainees
and national news programs would feature in many multicultural texts and staff de- were people of color.
stories referring to the students as “sav- velopment trainings. Speaking to an oft- Returning to the school, a principal
age,” “a pack of dogs,” and “criminals.” The ignored history of racial conflict in the may have a building populated with stu-
case was heard in federal court in Decem- United States, CRT scholars in education dents with these experiences. Some may
ber of 1999, declaring the decision of the encourage teachers and school leaders to have had this experience within the con-
school constitutional under the laws of the place the stories of students and commu- fines of the school. It is not an uncommon
state of Illinois. nities of color in historical context. occurrence for students to be arrested or
Currently, 32 White seniors attending Examples would be placing the Great removed from a building during school
Glenbrook North High School were caught Migration of African-Americans in the con- hours. Many high schools in Chicago have
participating in a hazing ritual in a forest text of World War II. A project of African- makeshift satellite police stations that can
preserve in Northbrook, Illinois. The event, American students collecting their grand- process a student and house criminal
also videotaped, shows senior girls throw- parent’s experience would uncover an oral records.
ing feces, garbage, paints on a group of jun- tradition addressing what is often over- Again, all would be considered
ior girls while beating them with bats. looked in texts. From the counterstory, the counterstory, in that they are dismissed as
Unlike the Decatur incident, two girls were “hero-worship” in many history courses is integral to the function and operation of
taken to the hospital to treat injuries from questioned, challenging dominant ideology. the school. Instead of being considered “hor-
the event. At the time this account is being In it we find the stories of families moving ror stories,” the CRT project understands
written, all of the assailants have been to Chicago for employment and the racism the former accounts as commonplace in
suspended for the state maximum of 10 they endured in the process. Although well many school settings. The school leader,
days (Pickett & Fuller 2003, p. 6). In refer- documented in the work of Anderson (1988), as responsible to the function of the school’s
ence to the event, local and national media Watkins (2002), and Winant (2001), it still ability to serve students, is immersed in
has chosen to focus on whether or not these is not received as central to U.S. history. navigating these spaces, still with the
girls will get into college and how “emo- Similar to court testimony, school lead- charge of fostering a learning community.
tionally scarred” the juniors will be due to ers often find themselves listening to
this incident. countless stories of students, teachers, Engaging CRT Praxis
Interestingly enough, I’ve been in parents, and concerned community mem-
schools where students have been sus- bers. As in many formal complaint pro- Returning to the Solorzano and
pended for the state maximum for not be- cesses, the stories compacted with empiri- Villalapando CRT tenets, points three
ing in proper uniform. Other suspensions cal data are crucial in making a case for through five speak more to the day-to-day
have been longer for the same offense. In educational policy. Where ethnographic challenges of the school leader. The com-
Chicago Public Schools, more than 20 un- researchers consider it “data collection,” mitment to social justice brings into ques-
excused absences in a school year requires the school leader is charged with collecting tion the culture of the school. Experiential
instant summer school and possible reten- the various accounts when s/he is called to knowledge (including the principals own)
tion for the following year. In a worst case present their case to central office. Often serves as an informing agent for school
scenario, a student could be retained for in the urban setting, these policies can de- leaders who must make challenging edu-
growing out of their shoes (also considered cide anything from the disciplinary code to cational decisions. The use of an interdis-
part of the uniform)! curriculum, to school closure. ciplinary perspective enables the teacher
Where the following may seem insig- In the case of youth of color, we exist in to use non-conventional approaches to ad-
nificant to some, the discourse surround- a society that criminalizes youth without dress issues of race in school. All must func-
ing both incidents is crucial in the analy- “reasonable doubt.” An example would be tion simultaneously in creating a produc-
sis of how members from different racial the Gang Congregation Ordinance of Chi- tive space for young people.
groups are described in the public sphere. cago in 1992 prohibiting “street gang mem- For principals, teachers, and research-
Where the publicizing of the two events bers from loitering with one another or with ers with a social justice agenda, the ques-
may not be categorized as “racist,” the dis- others in any public space” (Dohrn in Ayers tion becomes “since we know this about
course surrounding both instances contrib- et. al. 1999, p. 102). After being declared racism, what do we do?” In this sense CRT
utes to derogatory beliefs concerning com- unconstitutionally vague by an appellate poses a call to work. It’s one thing to know
munities of color. Returning to the second court, the city passed a revised ordinance and analyze the functions of race. It is yet
tenet of Solorzano and Villalapando, this stating that a group of three or more per- another to engage in the practice of devel-
challenge to dominant ideologies remains sons could be considered a gang if one known oping and maintaining a school with an
integral in unpacking the endemic nature gang member is present. The police would anti-oppressive, anti-racist agenda in an
of racism. then have discretion as to whether to ask age of conservative educational policy.
the group to disperse or to hold the entire Yamamoto (1997) challenged CRT le-
Counterstories: School Narrative group for questioning. gal scholars to engage in a praxis that
and the Underpinnings of Race From a critical race perspective, one bridged theoretical concepts to everyday
would have to ask another set of questions, practice. In it he proposed that legal schol-
In developing the aforementioned te- highlighting the underpinnings of race. If a ars spend less time with theory and more
MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION
10
time concentrating on “anti-subordination be of a sensitive nature, but were neces- eral nutrition. To address the issue, some
practice” (Yamamoto p. 873). For the so- sary in addressing tensions within the teachers feel no recourse but to call the
cially conscious school principal, a CRT school. After a barrage of moans and various social service agencies of the city
“race-praxis” in education involves forging groans from the staff, the facilitators en- or state.
relationships with parents, students, com- gaged a dialogue about the construction of Understanding the dire straits young
munity organizations, student-teachers, racial identities and how these racial iden- people are placed in the context of many
and first-year and veteran teachers. tities play out in the school setting. Con- social work agencies, a community organi-
All should be considered counter to versations ensued about student reactions zation I began working with developed a
popularized dogmatic approaches to school to White teachers and productive strate- resource guide listing the various services
leadership. From the experience of those gies to address said issues. available in the neighborhood in which the
in the school body, we are able to address Where some might group the follow- school was housed. Included in the resource
the “messy and conflictual racial realities” ing session as one about discipline, CRT guide were the telephone numbers and
of the public school (p. 875). Here is where would argue that this should be considered addresses of various health care, food de-
the situation gets difficult and requires hu- a discussion of curricular relevance. Prin- livery, and clothing centers. Teachers, in-
mility from all concerned parties. The fol- cipals and teachers understand that if stu- stead of reporting the child, were provided
lowing are a series of narratives and sug- dents find material interesting, discipline with another resource by which to address
gestions that envision a blend of CRT and problems dissipate. Central to developing student issues.
socially-conscious administration. a safe space for students, the social justice Parents appreciated the resource
minded administrator engaging CRT can guide due to many being new to the neigh-
Suggestion #1: incorporate Ladson-Billings’ overarching borhood and unaware of the services pro-
Race and Professional/Staff Development tenets of cultural-relevance in literacy. vided in the area. Many of the teachers
found it very useful and began to develop
1. Students whose educational, eco-
The school leader has to deal with the relationships with many of the organiza-
nomic, social, political, and cultural
racial reality of schools. Urban public tions listed in the resource guide. From this
futures are most tenuous are helped
school students are predominantly people development, a resource fair is currently
to become intellectual leaders in the
of color. The majority of the teaching force being developed for parents and guardians
classroom.
remains white. Often the teaching group who could benefit from these services.
has little to no experience in dealing with 2. Students are apprenticed in a learn- Again, the CRT recognizes the resource
communities of color. Some hear the word ing community rather than taught in guide as incomplete. As a resource, it has
“race” and think they’re being called a rac- an isolated and unrelated way. to be utilized by the school faculty and staff.
ist. For the school leader, the dynamics are The school leader, as responsible to its stu-
3. Students’ real-life experiences are
tension filled. dent populace, is instrumental in forging
legitimized as they become part of the
As a suggestion for professional/staff relationships within the community.
“official” curriculum.
development and staff retreats, the school
4. Teachers and students participate
leader should take particular interest in Suggestion #3:
in a broad conception of literacy that
the facilitator chosen to engage staff on School as Community Center
incorporates both literature and ora-
issues of race. From this space a conversa-
tory.
tion can begin between school leader and Probably the most radical suggestion
facilitator as to the particulars of the school 5. Teachers and students engage in of this CRT project is the physical commu-
and how to engage effective dialogue. The a collective struggle against the nity presence in the school building. Aside
issue is not to “change” the person. Instead status quo. from after-school programs and the occa-
the intent is to provide effective strategies sional parent meeting, communities across
6. Teachers are cognizant of them-
in understanding the dynamics of students the country have engaged the idea of school
selves as political beings. (Ladson-
of color in the urban setting. as an extension of the area in which it re-
Billings, 1994, p. 117-118)
Unfortunately, many diversity and cul- sides. The process of making the aforemen-
tural sensitivity workshops sanitize race Where the fourth principle denotes a di- tioned a reality equips public schools with
and attempt to promote false senses of rect relationship to literacy, a school leader adult education programs, ESL (English
unity. Coupled with the negativity many finds a facilitator for staff development as a Second Language) courses, health clin-
teachers associate with staff/development capable of incorporating some variation of ics, job trainings, and community meet-
days, challenges to the principal rise. In- these principles. Principles five and six may ings, in addition to the various after-school
stead of confronting the difficult issues that be tenuous to the school leader, but neces- programs. Schools open as early as 6 am
race can present, some trainings amount sary in understanding the school as con- and close at 8 pm, providing parents in the
to “we’re a multicultural society and we tested space. community a place to establish connection
should get along better.” This is not enough. with the school as a safe space for all in
Instead, the CRT project would sup- Suggestion #2: the community. In making practice from
port professional development to confront The Resource Guide theory (or vice-versa), the school leader
the issue of race directly in a productive engaging CRT becomes immersed in the
manner. One effective strategy I’ve wit- In supporting teachers and students, project of forging viable, lasting relation-
nessed was facilitated by a community or- a principal engaging CRT understands ships with the community.
ganization. The school had a majority that students bring the situations they face Currently the El Puente Academy for
white staff and a population that was one outside of school into the classroom. Many Peace and Justice in Brooklyn, New York,
hundred percent African-American and teachers speak of students who have prob- has engaged the process. Part of a larger
Latino/a. The facilitator began the session lems ranging from (but not limited to) community vision, the High School has
stating the issues to be discussed would physical abuse, drug addiction, and gen- been engaged in the process of expanding
WINTER 2004
11
its doors to develop a community center trality of class analysis in school inequal- key writings that formed the movement.
with the previous mentioned outlets. ity. To develop this discourse, CRT must New York: The New Press.
Spencer Math and Science Academy challenge its intersections by giving more Delgado, R., & Stefancic, J. (2001). Critical
in Chicago, Illinois currently houses an attention to how issues of class affect race race theory: An introduction. New York:
New York University Press.
adult learning center, dance classes, art in- and racism in schools. In addition, it must
Ladson-Billings, G. (1994). The dreamkeepers:
struction and a breakfast program. Where challenge itself not to reduce its purpose
Sucessful teachers of african-american
many may consider the concept as radical, to a rally cry for the socially conscious. As
children. San Francisco: Josey-Bass Pub-
CRT argues the approach as necessary in an alternative, it must engage the reality lishers.
addressing the lasting effects of systemic that these struggles in the worst-case sce- Ladson-Billings, G. (1998). Just what is criti-
inequality in public schools. The lessons of nario may result in people loosing their cal race theory and what’s it doing in a nice
the struggles from both schools could serve jobs or never receiving tenure. It is that field like education. International Journal
to inform those interested in developing serious. of Qualitative Studies in Education, 11(1),
7-24.
similar approaches. Constantly we are again challenged to
Larson, C., & Ovando, C. (2001). The color of
realize the importance of collective
bureaucracy: The politics of equity in
Conclusion: Grounded Theory struggle. In the case of schools, our schol-
multicultural school communities. Stam-
and the Struggle for a Race Praxis arship is not enough. If school leaders en- ford, CT: Wadsworth Publishing.
gage the space of CRT, they must garner Picket, Debra (2003, May 13). Hazing could
Often when we speak of a “grounded support from the communities they work affect college plans. Chicago Sun-Times,
theory” we speak of a set of experiences in and with. This only occurs when the p.6
that inform a theoretical construct on the school leader demonstrates his/her ac- Rausa-Fuller, J. (2003, May 13). Senior girls
suspended, could get expelled. Chicago Sun
function of a phenomenon. By engaging the countability through praxis. The road is
Times, p. 6.
CRT project, school leaders, teachers, and bumpy. Many days are better than others.
Sadovi, C., & Pallasch. A. M. (2003, May 14).
researchers are challenged with engaging All said, the task of engaging the lives of
Felony charges unlikely in hazing. Chicago
and investigating processes by which to young people in schools requires us to get Sun Times, p. 3.
make a school a place for young people to to work. Solorzano, D. (1997). Images and words that
challenge themselves and effect change. wound: Critical race theory, racial stereo-
Beyond the rhetoric, developing a race References typing, and teacher education. Teacher
praxis acknowledges that those concerned Education Quarterly, 24(3), 5-19.
with challenging dominant ideologies will Apple, M. (2000). Official knowledge: Demo- Spring, J. (2002). Conflict of interests: The
cratic education in a conservative age. New politics of American education. New York:
have to “get their hands dirty.” For the edu-
York: Routledge. McGraw Hill.
cation researcher it means engaging in a
Anderson, J. (1988). The education of blacks Tate, W. (1997). Critical race theory and edu-
scholarship that is reflective of the praxis in the south, 1860-1935. Chapel Hill, NC: cation: History, theory and implications.
you engage daily, whether it with your stu- The University of North Carolina Press. Review of Research in Education, 22, 195-
dents or within the schools you work. For Ayers, W., Hunt, J.A., & Quinn, T. (1998). 247.
the school leader it means building rela- Teaching for social justice. New York: Watkins, W. (2001). The white architects of
tionships with communities that ensure Teachers College Press. black education: Ideology and power in
the safety and well-being of the students. Ayers, W., Klonsky, M., & Lyon, G. (2000). A America, 1865-1954. New York: Teachers
Simple Justice: The challenge of small College Press.
CRT embarks on grounded theory due to
schools. New York: Teachers College Press. Weiss, L., & Fine, M. (Eds.). (2000). Construc-
the centrality of experiential knowledge.
Ayers, W., Dohrn, B., & Ayers, R., (2001). Zero tion sites: Excavating, race, class, and gen-
Because the experiences of the students, tolerance: Resisting the drive for punish- der among youth. New York: Teachers Col-
faculty, and staff are valid in the school ment in our schools. New York: The New lege Press.
setting, the principal engages the measures Press. Winant, H. (2001). The world is a ghetto: Race
that propose innovative approaches to pub- Bracey, G.W. (2002). The war against and democracy since world war II. New
lic schooling. america’s public schools: Privatizing York: Basic Books.
In critique, the CRT project is incom- schools, commercializing education. Bos- Yamamoto, E. (1997). Critical race praxis: Race
ton: Allyn & Bacon. theory and political lawyering practice in
plete. Throughout this account I have not
Crenshaw, K., Gotanda, N., Peller, G., & Tho- post civil-rights America. Michigan Law
addressed budgetary concerns or the cen-
mas, K. (1995). Critical race theory: The Review, 95(7), 821-900.
MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION
12
