Designing Together Apart

374 Pages·1999·1.62 MB·English

Thomas Kvan
M A (Cantab), M Arch (Calif)
Designing Together Apart
Computer Supported
Collaborative Design in Architecture

Submitted for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
The Open University
Milton Keynes
England
Discipline
Design and Innovation
December 1998
Submitted:
June 1999
Revised:
DESIGNING TOGETHER APART i
ABSTRACT..................................................................................................................................VI
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS........................................................................................................VII
PUBLISHED WORK................................................................................................................VIII
ACRONYMS.................................................................................................................................IX
1 INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................1
1.1 PROPOSITION OF THIS THESIS..............................................................................................6
1.2 STRUCTURE OF THE THESIS.................................................................................................9
2 DESIGNING TOGETHER APART...................................................................................10
2.1 AN OVERVIEW..................................................................................................................12
2.1.1 Technology in practices...........................................................................................14
2.1.2 Virtual design studios..............................................................................................17
2.2 ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN..................................................................................................19
2.2.1 Designing together...................................................................................................24
2.2.2 Supporting design excellence...................................................................................27
2.2.3 Summary..................................................................................................................35
2.3 WHAT IS COLLABORATION?..............................................................................................36
2.3.1 Collaboration and Co-operation.............................................................................37
2.3.2 Close coupled or loose coupled?.............................................................................40
2.3.3 The contribution of roles..........................................................................................45
2.3.4 Summary..................................................................................................................51
2.4 DESIGN METHODS.............................................................................................................51
2.4.1 The systems approach..............................................................................................52
2.4.2 The reflective approach...........................................................................................55
2.4.3 Summary..................................................................................................................59
2.5 MODELS OF COLLABORATIVE DESIGN...............................................................................59
2.5.1 Architectural design as a social activity..................................................................60
2.5.2 Architectural design as a situated activity...............................................................70
2.5.3 A cognitive model of architectural collaboration....................................................87
2.6 DISCUSSION......................................................................................................................96
2.7 SUMMARY......................................................................................................................101
2.8 CONCLUSION..................................................................................................................105
3 COMPUTER-SUPPORTED COLLABORATIVE DESIGN.........................................107
3.1 COMMUNICATION FOR COLLABORATION........................................................................108
3.2 A FRAMEWORK FOR CSCW............................................................................................111
3.3 LESSONS LEARNED.........................................................................................................113
3.3.1 Process structure benefits......................................................................................114
3.3.2 Greater participation.............................................................................................116
3.3.3 Better results..........................................................................................................118
3.3.4 Summary................................................................................................................119
3.4 EXPERIENCES IN COLLABORATIVE ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN..........................................119
3.4.1 eCAADe.................................................................................................................121
3.4.2 CAADRIA...............................................................................................................124
3.4.3 ACADIA.................................................................................................................129
3.4.4 Summary................................................................................................................133
3.5 PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCES.........................................................................................136
3.6 TECHNOLOGIES EMPLOYED............................................................................................140
3.6.1 GCSS / GXSS.........................................................................................................140
DESIGNING TOGETHER APART ii
3.6.2 GISS.......................................................................................................................142
3.6.3 GPSS......................................................................................................................143
3.6.4 Integrated systems.................................................................................................144
3.6.5 Benefits accrued.....................................................................................................144
3.7 DISCUSSION....................................................................................................................145
3.8 CONCLUSION..................................................................................................................147
4 TOOLS FOR COLLABORATIVE PROJECTS.............................................................149
4.1 TOOLS FOR COMMUNICATING.........................................................................................150
4.1.1 Typing....................................................................................................................151
4.1.2 Video......................................................................................................................154
4.1.2.1 Supporting conversation........................................................................................156
4.1.2.2 Simulating collocated offices.................................................................................159
4.1.2.3 Video as data.........................................................................................................160
4.1.2.4 Synchrony and bandwidth......................................................................................161
4.1.2.5 Value derived.........................................................................................................162
4.1.3 Audio......................................................................................................................163
4.1.4 Drawing.................................................................................................................165
4.2 MULTIPLE MODES...........................................................................................................169
4.3 HETEROGENEITY............................................................................................................170
4.4 DATA SHARING...............................................................................................................173
4.4.1 Sharing files...........................................................................................................174
4.4.2 Shared understanding............................................................................................178
4.4.3 Tracing heritage of ideas.......................................................................................181
4.4.4 Data standards.......................................................................................................182
4.4.5 Interacting on data................................................................................................184
4.5 PARTICIPANT COMMUNICATION.....................................................................................185
4.5.1 Modes.....................................................................................................................186
4.5.2 Synchronicity.........................................................................................................187
4.5.2.1 Asynchronous.........................................................................................................187
4.5.2.2 Synchronous...........................................................................................................188
4.5.3 Privacy...................................................................................................................189
4.6 REVIEWS........................................................................................................................189
4.7 CONCLUSION..................................................................................................................194
5 AN EXPERIMENT IN DESIGN COLLABORATION..................................................199
5.1 THE EXPERIMENT...........................................................................................................200
5.2 CONDITION 1: SHARED DOMAINS OF KNOWLEDGE.........................................................201
5.2.1 The Task.................................................................................................................202
5.3 CONDITION 2: DIFFERENT DOMAINS OF KNOWLEDGE.....................................................203
5.3.1 The Task.................................................................................................................204
5.4 METHOD.........................................................................................................................205
5.5 PROCEDURE....................................................................................................................207
5.6 COLLABORATIVE PROCESS MODEL................................................................................208
5.7 DESIGN PROCESS MODEL...............................................................................................210
5.8 PREDICTED OUTCOMES..................................................................................................211
5.9 RESULTS: CONDITION 1..................................................................................................212
5.9.1 Design Evaluation.................................................................................................213
5.9.2 Collaborative Process Encoding...........................................................................214
5.9.3 Design Process Encoding......................................................................................218
5.10 RESULTS: CONDITION 2..................................................................................................220
5.10.1 Design Evaluation.................................................................................................220
5.10.2 Collaborative Process Encoding...........................................................................221
5.10.3 Design Process Encoding......................................................................................222
DESIGNING TOGETHER APART iii
5.11 DISCUSSION....................................................................................................................224
5.12 CONCLUSION..................................................................................................................229
6 PEDAGOGICAL APPLICATIONS OF CSCD...............................................................233
6.1 INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................234
6.2 DESIGN STUDIO TEACHING.............................................................................................235
6.3 PROBLEM BASED LEARNING...........................................................................................237
6.3.1 What are we doing in studio teaching....................................................................242
6.3.2 Teaching collaborative design...............................................................................247
6.4 SETTINGS FOR DESIGN TEACHING...................................................................................253
6.4.1 Settings for a VDS..................................................................................................255
6.5 THE TEACHING COMPACT...............................................................................................260
6.5.1 Teaching compact in a VDS...................................................................................262
6.6 THE STUDIO MASTER'S CONTRIBUTION...........................................................................264
6.6.1 The studio master's contribution to a VDS............................................................267
6.7 PEER LEARNING..............................................................................................................268
6.7.1 Peer learning in the VDS.......................................................................................270
6.8 KNOWLEDGE RESOURCES...............................................................................................272
6.8.1 Resources in a VDS...............................................................................................273
6.9 REVIEWS AND JURIES......................................................................................................274
6.9.1 Virtual Reviews......................................................................................................275
6.10 DISCUSSION....................................................................................................................277
6.11 CONCLUSION..................................................................................................................284
7 PROFESSIONAL IMPLEMENTATION OF COMPUTER-SUPPORTED
COLLABORATIVE DESIGN...........................................................................................286
7.1 LEARNING FROM THE USE OF CAD IN PRACTICE...........................................................289
7.1.1 Lessons Learned....................................................................................................293
7.2 ESTABLISHING CSCD IN PRACTICE................................................................................298
7.2.1 Environment...........................................................................................................298
7.2.2 Membership...........................................................................................................301
7.2.3 Process and structure............................................................................................303
7.2.4 Communication......................................................................................................307
7.2.5 Purpose..................................................................................................................308
7.2.6 Resources...............................................................................................................309
7.2.6.1 Tools......................................................................................................................310
7.2.6.2 Data organisation..................................................................................................311
7.2.6.3 Training.................................................................................................................313
7.3 DISCUSSION....................................................................................................................316
7.4 CONCLUSION..................................................................................................................318
8 CONCLUSION....................................................................................................................320
8.1 FUTURE RESEARCH.........................................................................................................324
8.2 SUMMARY......................................................................................................................327
APPENDIX 1: COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES FOR PRACTICES......................328
APPENDIX 2: EXAMPLES OF PROTOCOL CODING........................................................332
COLLABORATIVE PROCESS.........................................................................................................333
DESIGN PROCESS........................................................................................................................337
REFERENCES............................................................................................................................341
DESIGNING TOGETHER APART iv
Tables
Table 1. Common taxonomy of CSCW .............................................................................7
Table 2. The link between speed and mode of cognition ................................................58
Table 3. Types of Communication Tools for Collaboration ..........................................113
Table 4. Approaches to VDS implementation................................................................135
Table 5. Principles of learning and effective instruction in domains
and problems that are complex and ill structured ...........................................240

Figures
Figure 1: Image of candy from Barcelona........................................................................33
Figure 3: Event lengths during design (from Gero & McNeill, 1998).............................43
Figure 4: Loose coupled design process...........................................................................44
Figure 5: The structural engineering component of a multistorey building being
synthesised as a series of two-dimensional parallel frames (from Gero, 1998)........74
Figure 6: Lateral bracing put in place by the engineer between the parallel two-
dimensional frames (from Gero, 1998).....................................................................75
Figure 7: Activities during a performance period (from Eraut, 1994, p. 151).................80
Figure 8: A cognitive model of individual design............................................................90
Figure 9: A cognitive model of collaborative design.......................................................91
Figure 10: Multiple video windows in a VDS................................................................155
Figure 11: Holding up a sketch (VDS 94)......................................................................156
Figure 12: Multiple modes of communication on one screen........................................169
DESIGNING TOGETHER APART v
Figure 13: Graphic representation of memetic evolution (from Wenz & Hirschberg,
1997)........................................................................................................................182
Figure 14: VRML model with avatars (from Lee, et al., 1997)......................................193
Figure 15: Design site used in Condition 1....................................................................202
Figure 16: Design site used in Condition 2....................................................................205
Figure 17: Model of collaborative design......................................................................209
Figure 18: Results of coding the Condition 1 protocols with the Collaborative Process
Model......................................................................................................................215
Figure 19: Results of coding the Condition 1 protocols with the Design Process Model.
.................................................................................................................................218
Figure 20: Results of coding Condition 2 protocols with the Collaborative Process
Model......................................................................................................................222
Figure 21: Results of coding Condition 2 protocols with the Design Process Model....223
Figure 22: Derived cognitive model of collaboration....................................................224
Figure 23: Space of collaboration characteristics requiring different computer-support
solutions..................................................................................................................232
Figure 24: A student in a teaching studio at the University of Hong Kong...................256
Figure 25: A scanned sketch for transmission................................................................272
Figure 26: A virtual review using video link..................................................................276
DESIGNING TOGETHER APART vi
Abstract
The design of computer tools to assist in work has often attempted to replicate
manual methods. This replication has been proven to fail in a diversity of fields
such as business management, Computer-Aided Design (CAD) and Computer-
Supported Collaborative Work (CSCW). To avoid such a failure being repeated in
the field of Computer-Supported Collaborative Design (CSCD), this thesis
explores the postulation that CSCD does not have to be supported by tools which
replicate the face-to-face design context to support distal architectural design. The
thesis closely examines the prevailing position that collaborative design is a social
and situated act which must therefore be supported by high bandwidth tools. This
formulation of architectural collaboration is rejected in favour of the formulation
of a collaborative expert act. This proposal is tested experimentally, the results of
which are presented. Supporting expert behaviour requires different tools than the
support of situated acts. Surveying research in computer-supported collaborative
work (CSCW), the thesis identifies tools that support expert work. The results of
the research is transferred to two contexts: teaching and practice. The applications
in these two contexts illustrate how CSCD can be applied in a variety of
bandwidth and technological conditions. The conclusion is that supporting
collaborative design as an expert and knowledge-based act can be beneficially
implemented in the teaching and practice of architecture.
DESIGNING TOGETHER APART vii
Acknowledgements
I wish to acknowledge Erik Kvan, Mary Lou Maher, Philip Steadman and Alonso
Vera, all of whom read drafts of this thesis and provided valuable comments and
guidance. I have explored many of the ideas in this thesis in papers published
either as sole author or joint author; these papers are listed below; to my co-
authors and to the paper reviewers I also owe thanks. Likewise, the examiners
(Prof. Tim O’Shea and Prof. William J. Mitchell) have helped to focus the text.
Finally, acknowledgements are due to the students and colleagues who have
participated in the virtual design studios and in experiments in the course of this
research.
The laboratory work described in Chapter 5 was carried out in conjunction with
Alonso Vera, Robert West and Simon Lai of the Department of Psychology at the
University of Hong Kong. The author of this thesis was responsible for the
problem definition, 65% of the experimental design, the encoding of 50% of the
transcripts and 45% of the data analysis. Chapter 5 is co-authored by the candidate
and Alonso Vera, with contributions by Robert West and Simon Lai.
DESIGNING TOGETHER APART viii
Published work
Papers deriving directly from this research
Kvan, T., Keynote speaker. (1997a) But is it collaboration. In Challenges of the Future,
ed. B. Martens, H. Linzer & A. Voigt. ECAADe '97, p. 5. Vienna:
Österreichischer Kunst- und Kulturverlag
Kvan, T. (1997b) Studio teaching without meeting: Pedagogical aspects of a Virtual
Design Studio. In Proceedings of the Second Conference on Computer Aided
Architectural Design Research in Asia, ed. Y.-T. Liu, J.-Y. Tsou & J.-H. Hou.
CAADRIA '97, pp. 163-77. Taipei: Hu's Publisher Inc.
Kvan, T. (1998) Collaborative design communication: The Internet as a project
management tool. Design Intelligence, 4(17), 15 September, 3-5
Kvan, T. & Kvan, E. (1997) Is design really social. In Creative Collaboration in Virtual
Communities 1997, ed. A. Cicognani. VC'97. Sydney: Key Centre of Design
Computing, Department of Architectural and Design Science, University of
Sydney
Kvan, T., Vera, A. & West, R. (1997) Expert and situated actions in collaborative design.
In Proceedings of Second International Workshop on CSCW in Design, ed.
P. Siriruchatapong, Z. Lin & J.-P. Barthes. Second International Workshop on
CSCW in Design, pp. 400-5. Beijing: International Academic Publishers,
November
Kvan, T., West, R. & Vera, A. (1997) Tools for a Virtual Design Community. In
Preprints Formal Aspects of Collaborative CAD, ed. M. L. Maher, J. S. Gero &
F. Sudweeks, pp. 109-23. Sydney: Key Centre of Design Computing, Department
of Architectural and Design Science, University of Sydney
Kvan, T., West, R. & Vera, A. (1998) Tools and Channels of Communication: Dealing
with the Effects of Computer Mediation on Design Communication.
Http://www.ijvr.com/ijvr/articles/list.htm. International Journal of Virtual
Reality, 3(3)
Vera, A., Kvan, T., West, R. & Lai, S. (1998) Expertise and collaborative design. In
CHI'98 Conference Proceedings. CHI'98, pp. 503-10. Los Angeles: ACM
DESIGNING TOGETHER APART ix
Acronyms
The following acronyms are used in this thesis:
A/V Audio-Video
CAAD Computer-Aided Architectural Design
CAD Computer-Aided Design
CCL Collaborative Learning Laboratory
CSCD Computer-Supported Collaborative Design
CSCW Computer-Supported Collaborative Work
DSL Digital Subscriber Lines
DXF Drawing Exchange Format
fps Frames Per Second
ftp File Transfer Protocol
GDDSS Group Design Decision Support System
GDSS Group Decision Support Systems
HLD High Level Design
LAN Local Area Network
LLD Low Level Design
MOO Mud Object Oriented
MUD Multi-User Dungeon
VDS Virtual Design Studios
WWW World Wide Web