(cid:40)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:79)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:38)(cid:75)(cid:76)(cid:79)(cid:71)(cid:75)(cid:82)(cid:82)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:53)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:70)(cid:75)(cid:3)(cid:52)(cid:88)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:79)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:23)(cid:20)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:20)(cid:26)(cid:12)(cid:3)(cid:25)(cid:22)(cid:178)(cid:26)(cid:22) ContentslistsavailableatScienceDirect Early Childhood Research Quarterly journalhomepage:www.elsevier.com/locate/ecresq Children’s task-oriented patterns in early childhood: A latent transition (cid:48)(cid:36)(cid:53)(cid:46) analysis Feihong Wanga,⁎, James Alginab, Patricia Snyderc, Martha Coxd, The Family Life Project Key Investigators1 aAnitaZuckerCenterforExcellenceinEarlyChildhoodStudies,UniversityofFlorida,NormanHall,P.O.Box117050,Gainesville,FL32611-7050,UnitedStates bSchoolofHumanDevelopmentandOrganizationalStudiesinEducation,CollegeofEducation,UniversityofFlorida,UnitedStates cSchoolofSpecialEducation,SchoolPsychology,andEarlyChildhoodStudies,CollegeofEducation,UniversityofFlorida,1345NormanHall,P.O.Box117050, Gainesville,FL,32611-7050,UnitedStates dDevelopmentalPsychologyProgram,UniversityofNorthCarolinaatChapelHill,UnitedStates A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T Keywords: Weexaminedindividualdifferencesandpredictionsofchildren’spatternsinbehavioral,emotionalandatten- Task-orientedpattern tionaleffortstowardchallengingpuzzletasksat24and35monthsusingdatafromalargelongitudinalrural Challengingproblemsolving representativesample.Usinglatenttransitionanalysis,wefoundfourdistincttask-orientedpatternsinproblem- Latenttransitionanalysis solvingtaskswithinparent-toddler/preschoolerdyadsrepresentingdifferentlevelsofregulatorystrengthsand Infantattention weaknesses.Wealsofoundtherelativelymorepositiveandadaptivetask-orientedpatterns(i.e.,thepositive- Positiveparenting motivatedpatternandthecontent-compliantpattern)weremorestable,buttherelativelynegativepatterns(i.e., Familyeconomicstrains thenegative-disengagedpatternandtheemotional-mixedpattern)hadmuchmorevariabilityandchangefrom 24to35months.Finally,infantattention,positiveparenting,andfamilyeconomicstrainsalsosignificantly predictedchildren’stask-orientedpatternsat24monthsaftercontrollingforchildgender,raceandmaternal education. Thesefindings contribute toprevention/intervention strategies foryoungchildren’soptimalper- formanceduringchallengingproblemsolvingandtheirlaterschoolsuccess. 1. Introduction pictureoftheregulatorystrengthsandweaknessesinchildren’spursuit of problem solving and inform interventions that promote problem- Children’s task-oriented behavior in challenging problem-solving solvingeffortsrelevantforschoolreadiness. tasks has been of interest to researchers from different theoretical There has been little research on precursors of children’s task-or- perspectives,includingtheorganizationalperspectiveondevelopment. ientedpatternsduringchallengingproblemsolving.Researchdoesin- The organizational perspective on development emphasizes that dif- dicatethatchild,parent,andfamilyfactorsmightfosterorcompromise ferentaspectsofanindividual’sbehavior,emotion,andcognition,in- aspectsofchildren’sregulatoryeffortsinproblemsolving.Forexample, cluding attention,arecoordinatedinfunctioning towardgoalpursuit infant attention is related to child persistence on task and effortful suchthatsocial-emotionalandcognitiveaspectsofdevelopmentarenot control (e.g., Gaiter, Morgan, Jennings, Harman,&Yarrow, 1982; separable(Sroufe&Waters,1976).Researchfromthisperspectivehas Kochanska, Murray,&Harlan, 2000). Positive parenting facilitates drawnonchallengingproblem-solvingtaskssuchasshapesortingand children’s mood regulation, persistence and compliance (e.g., cylinderandpuzzlecompletiontasks(e.g.,Egeland,Sroufe,&Erickson, Young&Hauser-Cram, 2006), but family economic strains have been 1983)toelicitchildren’sbehavior.Thefocihavebeenontheindividual shown to constrain children’s emotional and behavior control (e.g., child’sbehaviororsometimesthebehaviorofparentswhoareableto Mistry,Vandewater,Huston,&McLoyd,2002). support children asneeded during thechallenging tasks.Fewstudies Thepresentstudyexaminedchildren’spatternsoftask-orientedef- haveexaminedhowdifferentaspectsofchildproblem-solving efforts forts (indicated by their behavioral, emotional, and attentional reg- might constitute distinct task-oriented patterns or how stable such ulation) during challenging problem-solving tasks at24months (tod- patternsmightbeinearlychildhood.Identifyingtask-orientedpatterns dlerhood)and35months(preschoolage)andpatternshiftsovertime and the degree of stability in these patterns may provide a holistic asinformedbytheorganizationalperspectiveondevelopment.Wealso ⁎Correspondingauthor. E-mailaddresses:feihongwg12@gmail.com(F.Wang),algina@ufl.edu(J.Algina),patriciasnyder@coe.ufl.edu(P.Snyder),martha_cox@unc.edu(M.Cox). 1SeeAppendixAforthenamesofTheFamilyLifeProjectKeyInvestigators. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2017.05.006 Received22January2016;Receivedinrevisedform20April2017;Accepted29May2017 (cid:36)(cid:89)(cid:68)(cid:76)(cid:79)(cid:68)(cid:69)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:79)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:21)(cid:22)(cid:3)(cid:45)(cid:88)(cid:81)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:20)(cid:26) (cid:19)(cid:27)(cid:27)(cid:24)(cid:16)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:25)(cid:18)(cid:3)(cid:139)(cid:3)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:20)(cid:26)(cid:3)(cid:40)(cid:79)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:89)(cid:76)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:44)(cid:81)(cid:70)(cid:17)(cid:3)(cid:36)(cid:79)(cid:79)(cid:3)(cid:85)(cid:76)(cid:74)(cid:75)(cid:87)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:89)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:17) F.Wangetal. (cid:40)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:79)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:38)(cid:75)(cid:76)(cid:79)(cid:71)(cid:75)(cid:82)(cid:82)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:53)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:70)(cid:75)(cid:3)(cid:52)(cid:88)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:79)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:23)(cid:20)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:20)(cid:26)(cid:12)(cid:3)(cid:25)(cid:22)(cid:178)(cid:26)(cid:22) examinedselectchild,parent,andfamilycorrelatesofchildren’stask- interpersonal skills andwork-relatedskills, self-regulation, and social orientedpatternsat24and35months. competenceinthekindergartenyear(Berhenkeetal.,2011).Children whodemonstratedconsistentattentionalpersistencethroughpre-K,K, 1.1. Patternsoftask-orientedeffortsfromtheorganizationalperspective and1stgradedemonstratedacademicproficiencyinmath,vocabulary, reading, language and science tests by second grade (McDermott, According to the organizational perspective of development Rikoon,&Fantuzzo,2014). (Sroufe&Waters, 1976), children’s development of self-regulation It is still unclear how these individual aspects of child behavior, startsininfancywithexternalregulationbycaregivers,changestothe emotion, and attention in problem solving reflect overall patterns of emergenceofself-regulatorycapacityintoddlerhoodsupportedbythe adaptation in early childhood. While children make great strides in guidanceofthecaregiver,andthenmovestowardtheestablishmentof their behavior, emotion, and attention regulation through the early independent self-regulation by the preschool period (Egeland, childhoodyears,thepaceofdevelopmentandthelevelofcoordination Bosquet,&Levy-Chung, 2002; Kochanska, 1993). In this theoretical and adaptation across behavior, emotion, and attention may vary, tradition,problem-solvingtasks(e.g.,Egelandetal.,1983;Main,1977; leadingtodiversepatternsofadaptation.Aperson-orientedapproach Matas,Arend,&Sroufe,1978;Sroufe,1979)arecreatedtoassesschil- has the capacity to depict the coordination and dis-coordination of dren’squalityofadaptation orself-regulation atagivenage.Specifi- behavior,emotion,andattentioninchildren’stask-orientedeffortand cally, they are created to tax children’s regulatory capacities across help understand children’s behavior as a “whole” rather than con- domainsaswellastheircapabilitytouseenvironmentalandpersonal sidering each behavior as a separate entity (Halle, Hair, resourcestowardthegoalpursuit.Challengingpuzzlesarecommonly Wandner,&Chien,2012).Thisapproachalsohelpsidentifyregulatory usedinsuchproblem-solvingtaskswithpuzzlespresentedinanorder patterns in children that may be amenable to targeted prevention or of increasing difficulty (Buckley&Woodruff-Borden, 2006; Davis, interventions(Chazan-Cohen,Halle,Barton,&Winsler,2012). Burns, Snyder, Dossett,&Wilkerson, 2004; Harris, Robinson, Researchershavesuggestedbothstabilityandchangeinchildren’s Chang,&Burns,2007).Forexample,intheseproblem-solvingtasks,the regulatoryprocessesduringthesecondyearoflifeasaresultofboth tasksthechildinitiallyencountersareusuallywithinthecapacityofthe expected continuity in adaptation and developmental advances in child,andserveasawarm-uptask.Tasksintroducedlateraredifficult children’sregulatoryrepertoireduringthisperiod(Matasetal.,1978). enough so that the child needs to exert some regulatory effort to Therefore, we were further interested in depicting the stability and complete the tasks while parents provide some help for the child as changeinchildren’sregulatoryandadaptationpatternsfrom24to35 deemed necessary (Egeland et al., 1983; National Institute of Child months.Studieshavedemonstratedbothstabilityandchangeinchil- HealthandDevelopmentEarlyChildCareResearchNetwork(NICHD dren’sadaptationindifferentaspects.Forexample,positiveemotion- SECCYD),1999). ality was found to be relatively stable in early childhood between 3 Child characteristics in challenging problem-solving tasks include monthsand48monthsofage(Lemery,Goldsmith,Klinnert,&Mrazek, thoserelevanttothebehavioral,emotional,andattentionalprocesses. 1999).However,otherresearchersreportvariabilityinthestabilityof Thechildcharacteristicsthattapthebehavioralprocessincludechild children’s behavioral and attentional persistence during challenging persistence,compliancetoparentdirectives,relianceonhelpfromthe puzzle tasks. For example, Zhou, Hofer, and Eisenberg (2007) found caregiver, and avoidance of the parent; whereas the child character- that behavioral and attentional persistence was high and stable for istics that tap the emotional process include task enthusiasm, anger/ somechildren,butmoderateandslightlydecliningforotherchildren, negativity/aggression, affection shown toward the parent, and nega- andlowinitiallybutrisinglaterinyetanothergroupofchildrenfrom tivitytowardthecaregiver(Egelandetal.,1983;Egelandetal.,2002; age5–10.Aholisticapproachinexamininghowpatternsofadaptation Matasetal.,1978).Childpersistencealsoreflectstheattentionalpro- acrossthebehavioral,emotional,andattentionaldomainsat24months cess(Fredricksetal.,2004).Allofthesecharacteristicsareinterrelated showtransitionsorstabilitiesby35monthshasyettobeexplored.The constructsinsuggestingchildren’scoordinationofself-regulationthatis present study fills this gap by examining the extent of stability and critical for children’s learning and development. Nevertheless, re- changeinchildren’staskorientedpatternsacrosslevelsfrom24to35 searchers have focused mostly on understanding the individual child months. variables (e.g., Berhenke, Miller, Brown, Seifer&Dickstein, 2011) or thefacilitativeordisruptiveaspectsofparentingbehaviorduringthe 1.2. Predictorsofchildren’stask-orientedpatterns challengingproblem-solvingtasks(e.g.,Neitzel&Stright,2003). Forthestudiesthathaveinvestigatedthechildvariables,thereis Physiological studies suggest that children’s learning depends on evidence of significant relationships between the individual child attention, and focused attention indicates a state that information is variablesandchildren’sacademicandsocialoutcomes.Forexample,in being processed, facilitated, or enhanced (Lawson&Ruff, 2004; the behavioral domain, toddlers and preschoolers who are able to Richards,1997).Temperamentliteraturehasfrequentlysuggestedthat control themselves and comply with parents’ rules are found to be individual differences in infant attention predict socioemotional de- adaptiveandcompetentattheformalschoolages(Kochanska,Koenig, velopment (Rothbart&Posner, 2006). For example, focused attention Barry,Kim,&Yoon,2010),butthosewhoaredefiantandaggressivein in infancy is related to higher effortful control and later attention earlychildhoodaremorelikelytoexperienceschoolfailure(Brennan, duringplayinpreschool(Kochanskaetal.,2000;Lawson&Ruff,2004; Shaw, Dishion,&Wilson, 2012) and future conduct problems (Shaw, Ruff, Lawson, Parrinello,&Weissberg, 1990) as well as executive Gilliom,Ingoldsby,&Nagin,2003).Intheemotionaldomain,observed functions in toddlerhood (Johansson, Marciszko, Gredeback, negativeaffectandemotionalityinpreschoolerswasfoundtoberelated Nystrom,&Bohlin,2015).Therefore,themoreinfantsfocusattention toteacher-ratedschooladjustmentdifficultiesandemotiondisregula- on objects, the more capable they are of modulating arousal and in- tion(Herndon,Bailey,Shewark,Denham,&Bassett,2013),butpositive hibitingcompetingactivities.Patternsoftheirtask-orientedbehavioral, affectinpreschoolerswasrelatedtoteacherratedclassroomadjustment emotional, and attentional efforts during toddlerhood and preschool andpeeracceptance(Shinetal.,2011).Childenthusiasmhasalsobeen maybedistinctfromotherswhowerelessattentiveininfancy. treatedasanaspectofchildren’sself-regulation(Duncanetal.,2007) Further, both the sociocultural perspective of cognitive develop- andisrelatedtointrinsicmotivationforcompetency(Morgan,Busch- ment(Rogoff,1990;Vygotsky,1978)andtheorganizationalperspec- Rossnagel, Maslin-Cole,&Harmon, 1992), an important factor in tive of child development (Egeland et al., 2002; Kochanska, 1993) learningfunctioning(Gottfried,Fleming,&Gottfried,2001).Intheat- emphasize the crucial importance of early parenting as a primary tentional domain, Head Start graduates with higher observed persis- sourcefromwhichchildren’scognitiveproblem-solvingskillsandself- tence had higher teacher ratings on reading and math skills, greater regulatorycapacitiesevolve.Consequently,patternsofchildren’stask- (cid:25)(cid:23) F.Wangetal. (cid:40)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:79)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:38)(cid:75)(cid:76)(cid:79)(cid:71)(cid:75)(cid:82)(cid:82)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:53)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:70)(cid:75)(cid:3)(cid:52)(cid:88)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:79)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:23)(cid:20)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:20)(cid:26)(cid:12)(cid:3)(cid:25)(cid:22)(cid:178)(cid:26)(cid:22) orientedbehavioral,emotional,andattentionaleffortsduringproblem- acceptance, and low harsh punishment) in the first 2 years and chil- solvingtasksinearlychildhoodareverylikelytobeinfluencedbyearly dren’smoreadaptivetask-orientedperformancepatternsat24and35 parenting to which they have been exposed. Studies have found sig- months. Finally, we hypothesized that perceived family economic nificantpositiverelationshipsbetweenmaternalresponsivenessorac- strains might be related to children’s task-oriented patterns during ceptance and children’s positive affect and mood, compliance, and toddlerhood and preschool ages after accounting for both infant at- persistence (e.g., Erickson&Lowe, 2008; Kochanska&Aksan, 2008; tentionandpositiveparenting. Spinradetal.,2012;Young&Hauser-Cram,2006)aswellasthedet- rimentaleffectofmaternalnon-acceptanceandharshcontrolonchil- 2. Methods dren’s autonomy and exploration in activities (e.g., Grolnick, 2003; Taylor,Manganello,Lee,&Rice,2010).Forexample,warmandsensi- 2.1. Participants tiveparentingwasrelatedtoeffortfulcontrolandlowimpulsivityina sampleofpreschoolers(Spinradetal.,2012),butfrequentrestriction The participants in this study (n=1125) were a subsample from andcorporalpunishmentinparentswasrelatedtosubsequentaggres- the Family Life Project (FLP; N=1292), a large-scale, longitudinal sioninchildrenduringearlychildhood(Tayloretal.,2010). observational study of young children from birth to second grade. Living in poverty has a fundamental negative effect on children’s Families were recruited from three poor rural counties in North outcomes such as low academic achievement and behavior problems Carolina and three poor rural counties in Pennsylvania (Vernon- (e.g., Brooks-Gunn, Duncan,&Maritato, 1997; Mistry et al., 2002). Feagans&Cox, 2013). Ninety-eight percent of the primary caregivers Poverty may be directly reflected in parents’ perceived economic were the biological parent with 1116 mothers participating at 24 pressureandstrains(Mistryetal.,2002),whichhavebeenrelatedto monthsand1082mothersparticipatingat35months.Twopercent(22) emotionandbehaviordysregulationinchildren(Evans,2004;Mistry ofprimarycaregiversintheoriginalsamplechangedfrom24monthsto et al., 2002) and physiological markers of stress in children 35months.Thesampleinthepresentstudyincludedparticipantswho (Evans&English, 2002). For example, a natural experiment on the haddataontheobservedchildvariablesinthepuzzletasksat24or35 impact of family economic strains found relaxed family economic monthsorbothtimepoints.Primarycaregiversweretypicallymothers, strainswererelatedtodecreasesinchildconductproblems8yearsafter but insomecases, theprimary caregiverwas eithera fatherora re- the initial assessment of children at the age of 9–13 years (Costello, lative.Themeaneducationlevelfortheprimarycaregiverat2months Compton,Keeler,&Angold,2003). was14.42(SD=2.82)witharangeof6–22yearsofeducation.The Manystudieshavefocusedonchildrenofolderageslivinginpov- meanincome-to-needsratioat6monthswas1.81(SD=1.71)witha erty and have emphasized the meditational role of parenting in the rangeof0–16.49.Income-to-needsratio(INR)meanstheratiobetween relationshipbetweenperceivedeconomicpressureandchildoutcomes familyincomeandthefederalpovertythresholdforagivenyear.Inthe (e.g., Bradley&Corwyn, 2002; Conger, Conger,&Martin, 2010; Family Life Project, an INR below 1 was defined as “poor”; an INR McLoyd,1990).However,parentingmediationmightnotfullyexplain between1and2wasdefinedas“nearpoor”,andanINRabove2was theassociationbetweenfamilyeconomicstrainsandchildoutcomes.A defined as “not poor” (Garrett-Peters&Mills-Koonce, 2013). Higher cross-generation study demonstrated that besides the mediation by INRindicatesmoreincomerelativetoneeds(i.e.,lesspoor).Amongthe parentingfactors,familyeconomicstrainsstillhadadirectassociation childparticipants,51%weremale,and43%wereAfricanAmericans withobservedprosocialbehavior,receptivevocabulary,andacademic and56%wereEuropeanAmericans. success of children of 2–6 years old (Schofield et al., 2011). In the present study, we were interested in examining the extent to which 2.2. Procedures familyeconomicstrainswerelinkedtochildtask-orientedpatternsafter accounting for the direct effect of infant attention and positive par- Thedatausedinthecurrentstudywerecollectedduringhomevisits enting. whenthechildrenwere2,6,15,24,and35monthsold.At2months, primarycaregiversreportedtheir highesteducation levels,aswellas 1.3. Thepresentstudy child gender and race. At 6 months, home visitors used the Infant BehaviorRecord(IBR;Bayley,1969)questionnairetocollectdataon Inthepresentstudy,ourspecificresearchquestionswere:(1)are childtemperament.At6,15and24months,homevisitorscompleted there distinct patterns in children’s approach to challenging puzzle the Home Observation Measurement of Environment Inventory (IT- tasks intermsoftheirbehavior,emotion,andattention?(2)towhat HOME;Caldwell&Bradley,1984),whichyieldedinformationonpar- extent do children’s task-oriented patterns at 24 months remain the entingbehavioroftheprimarycaregivers.Theprimarycaregiversre- same or change at 35 months? and (3) to what extent are infant at- spondedontheEconomicStrainQuestionnaire(Conger&Elder,1994) tention, positive parenting, and perceived family economic strains at6,15,and24months.At24and35months,thechildandthepri- duringthefirst2yearsofliferelatedtochildren’stask-orientedpatterns mary caregiver worked on three puzzles of increasing difficulty for at 24 months and at 35 months? We first examined the patterns in about10minandwerevideotapedbyhomevisitorsforlatercodingof children’s task-oriented behavioral, emotional, and attentional efforts childbehaviorduringthechallengingpuzzletask(Cox,1997). at24and35monthsduringchallengingpuzzletasksinthecompanyof parents.Wethenexaminedthetransitionsandstabilitiesinchildren’s 2.3. Measures task-oriented patterns from 24 to 35 months. We explored whether infant attention, positive parenting and perceived family economic 2.3.1. Indicatorsoftask-orientedpatterns strains during the first 2 years of life were related to the patterns of Atboth24and35monthsofchildage,thesameparticipatingdyads children’stask-orientedbehavior,emotion,andattentionat24and35 wereaskedtocompletea10-minchallengingparent-childpuzzletask, months.Wehypothesizedtherewouldbedistincttask-orientedpatterns which involved completing three puzzles of increasing level of diffi- inchildren’sapproachtochallengingpuzzletasksat24and35months, culty.Parentswereinformedthatthepuzzlesweremeantfortheirchild and there would be both transitions and stabilities in these patterns tocomplete,buttheycouldhelpastheydeemednecessary.Parentsand from24to35months.Wealsohypothesizedthatinfantattentionwould children were videotaped, and coding was done based on the video differ forchildren in different task-oriented patterns during thechal- tapes.Childeffortsduringthepuzzletasksessionwerecodedusingthe lengingpuzzletasksat24months(toddlerhood)and35months(pre- sixsubscalesonaparent-childinteractioncodingsystem(Cox,1997) school). We further hypothesized a significant positive relationship adapted from a similar coding system used in the NICHD ECCRN betweenpositiveparentingbehavior(featuredbyhighresponsiveness, (1999). The positive mood subscale assesses the degree to which the (cid:25)(cid:24) F.Wangetal. (cid:40)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:79)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:38)(cid:75)(cid:76)(cid:79)(cid:71)(cid:75)(cid:82)(cid:82)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:53)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:70)(cid:75)(cid:3)(cid:52)(cid:88)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:79)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:23)(cid:20)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:20)(cid:26)(cid:12)(cid:3)(cid:25)(cid:22)(cid:178)(cid:26)(cid:22) child is generally satisfied and content during the session as shown structured interview with each of the primary caregivers and scored through laughter, smiles, positive vocalization, and body movement. items on two subscales of the IT-HOME (Caldwell&Bradley, 1984): The negative mood subscale assesses the degree to which the child parentalresponsivenessandparentalacceptanceofthechild.Parentalre- frowns,fusses,cries,showshostility,dislike,orangertowardtheparent sponsivenessisameancompositeof11itemsacrossbothhomevisitors aswellasotherdisplaysofdiscontent.Thepersistencesubscaleassesses at6,15and24months.Parentalacceptanceisameancompositeof8 the degree to which the child concentrates and is focused in his/her itemsacrossbothhomevisitorsat6,15,and24months.Inthecurrent problem-solving efforts toward the puzzle task. The enthusiasm sub- study,apositiveparentingcompositewasmadebyaveragingthemean scaleassessesthedegreetowhichthechildshowsinterest,eagerness, parentalresponsivenessandmeanparentalacceptancesubscalesacross confidence, and vigor in his/her problem-solving efforts toward the the6,15,and24monthsofassessmentswithhigherscoresindicating puzzletask.Thecompliancesubscaleassessesthedegreetowhichthe more positive parenting. The scores ranged from .40 to1. The Cron- childfollowsparent’sdirectivesandrequestswillingly.Theaggression bach’s alpha for this composite was .69. The correlations among the subscaleassessesthedegreetowhichthechildshowsovertorcovert subscales across time points ranged from .08 (p=.01, between 6 aggressive behavior (e.g., kicks legs, throws puzzle pieces) or vocali- monthparentalacceptanceand24monthsparentalresponsiveness)to zations(e.g.,yells,shouts)towardobjectsorpersonsduringthepuzzle .42(p < .001,between15monthsparentalacceptanceand24months tasksession. parentalacceptance). This rating system was designed for coding child performance in challenging situations (Cox, 1997). Ratings focus onboth thequality 2.3.4. Perceivedfamilyeconomicstrains andquantityofchildperformanceandthustakefrequency,intensity, Perceived family economic strains were reported by the primary and duration of child behavior, emotion, and attention into account. caregivers on the Economic Strain Questionnaire (Conger&Elder, Ratings for each subscale range from 1 to 7, with 1 indicating not 1994)withsixitemsat6,15,and24monthsonalikertscaleof1–5for characteristicofthechildand7indicatinghighlycharacteristicofthechild Items1and2andascaleof1–4forItems3–6.Item1asks“howdifficult forthespecificsubscale.Thecomplianceandaggressionsubscalesare isitforyoutopayyourfamily’sbillseachmonth”with1being“greatdeal measures of the behavioral aspect of child task-oriented efforts. The difficulty”and5being“nodifficultyatall”.Item2asks“generally,atthe positive mood, negative mood, and enthusiasm subscales assess the endofeachmonth,doyouendupwith…‘with1being“notenoughto emotionalaspectofchildtask-orientedefforts.Thepersistencesubscale makeendsmeet’and5being‘morethanenoughmoneyleftover’.ForItem measurestheattentionalaspectofchildtask-orientedefforts.Thesesix 3–6,theratingrangesfrom1(stronglydisagree)to4(stronglyagree).One childcodeswereusedastheindicatorsforlatentpatternsofchildren’s exampleitemis“wehaveenoughmoneytoaffordthekindofclothingwe task-orientedeffortsduringthechallengingpuzzletask. need”.Overall,thesesixitemsmeasuretheextenttowhichtheprimary Codersweretrainedbythefirstauthorwhoisalsooneofthemaster caregivers consider their families to be able to make ends meet and codersofthechildsubscales. Achild-subscale mastercoderachieved whether there is enough money for family necessities such as food, ICC at or above .90 with other master coders during training and clothing,andmedicalcare.Thevariableofperceivedfamilyeconomic maintained such level of ICC during coding. The trainees practiced strainsisameancompositeofreversescoresfromItem1–6across6,15, weekly coding of all the six child subscales for the assigned training and 24 months with higher scores indicating more economic strains. cases(i.e.,completingallthesixsubscalesforoneparticipantandthen Scoresrangedfrom6to26.TheCronbach’salphaofthiscompositeis proceeding to the next participant) and conferenced with the master .80. codersontheassignedsetsoftrainingcases.Intercoderreliabilitywas monitored weekly using the intraclass coefficient (ICC) between the 2.4. Analyticstrategy traineesandthemastercoder(ICC2,1;Shrout&Fleiss,1979)untilan ICCof.80wasachieved.IfthecodersdidnotachieveICCof.80,the Latenttransitionanalysis(LTA)isusedintheanalysis.LTAexplores videotapeswouldberedistributedandcodedbyothercodingpairsora changeinchildren’smembershipinthelatentclassesovertimethrough master coder. Coders were not acquainted with the participants and twosimultaneousmodelingprocesses:latentclassanalysis(LCA)and werenotinvolvedindatacollection.Eachsubscalewascodedbytwo longitudinalmodeling(Nylund,2007).TheLCAcomponentservesasa certifiedcoders(acertifiedcoderachievedanICCatorabove.80witha measurement modelidentifying unique patterns inchildren’s task-or- mastercoderduringtrainingandmaintainedsuchlevelofICCduring iented behavior, emotion, and attention at 24 and 35 months. The coding) or by one master coder. Coding differences were resolved longitudinalmodelingcomponentdescribestheshiftsortransitionsthat throughconferencing,andtheconsensuscodeswereusedforanalysis. occurovertimeinchildren’smembershipsinthedifferentregulatory Forthecurrentstudy,scoresonallsixsubscalesweretreatedasordinal patterns(Nylund,2007).LTAextendslatentclassanalysisinidentifying variablestoaccount fortheordinal response scaleusedintherating regulatorypatternsandallowingformodelingdatanotonlywithina process. Table1 shows thefrequency count ofscores foreach ofthe timepointbutalsoacrosstimepoints.Thus,utilizingLTA,wewereable childsubscales. toexploreboththeconstellationoftheregulatorypatternsatagiven time point and the developmental continuity and discontinuity in 2.3.2. Infantattention children’stask-orientedbehavior. Infantattentionwasassessedbyhomevisitorsat6monthsusingthe We conducted a three-step latent transition analysis (LTA) with 11-item Infant Behavior Record (IBR; Bayley, 1969) and Blaise soft- covariate andpredictor variables inMplus 7.3(Muthén and Muthén, ware.Itemswereratedoneithera5-pointora9-pointscalebasedon 1998Muthén&Muthén,1998-2012)toexamine(1)thenatureofchil- the home visitors’ global observation of child behavior during two dren’s task-oriented performances at 24 and 35 months, (2) stability homevisitsat6months.Aninfantattentioncompositewasconstructed andchangeofchildren’stask-orientedpatternsfrom24monthsto35 by averaging the raw scores from the 9-point scales for object or- months,and(3)theprediction ofinfantattention, positiveparenting ientation, attention span, and endurance across observers and visits, behaviorduringthefirst2years,andperceivedfamilyeconomicstrains with higher scores indicating higher infant attention. Scores ranged onchildren’stask-orientedpatternsduringthechallengingpuzzletask from 4.50 to 24. Alpha for infant attention was .88 (Odom, Garrett- atboth24and35months. Peters,Vemon-Feagans,&FLPInvestigators,2014). Insteponeofthethree-stepLTAprocess,wefollowedtheprocedure recommendedbyNylund(2007),andestimatedtwo-tofive-classun- 2.3.3. Positiveparenting conditionalLTAmodelstodecidetheoptimalnumberofclassesat24 Parentingbehaviorwasassessedbasedonahomevisitwhenchil- and 35 months. For each model, threshold values for each indicator dren were 6, 15, and 24 months. Two home visitors conducted a were constrained to be equal across occasions for each latent class, (cid:25)(cid:25) F.Wangetal. (cid:40)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:79)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:38)(cid:75)(cid:76)(cid:79)(cid:71)(cid:75)(cid:82)(cid:82)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:53)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:70)(cid:75)(cid:3)(cid:52)(cid:88)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:79)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:23)(cid:20)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:20)(cid:26)(cid:12)(cid:3)(cid:25)(cid:22)(cid:178)(cid:26)(cid:22) Table1 FrequencyCountsoftheLatentPatternIndicators. PuzzleTaskSubscales 1Notcharacteristic 2 3 4Middle 5 6 7Highlycharacteristic Compliance 24m 17 65 129 221 197 206 221 (1.61%) (6.16%) (12.22%) (20.93%) (18.66%) (19.51%) (20.93%) 35m 13 16 47 168 256 242 254 (1.31%) (1.61%) (4.72%) (16.87%) (25.7%) (24.3%) (25.5%) Aggression 24m 703 160 112 43 24 10 4 (66.57%) (15.15%) (10.61%) (4.07%) (2.27%) (.95%) (.38%) 35m 903 53 26 7 5 0 2 (90.66%) (5.32%) (2.61%) (.70%) (.50%) (0%) (.20%) Positivemood 24m 13 67 338 339 230 60 9 (1.23%) (6.34%) (32.01%) (32.10%) (21.78%) (5.68%) (.85%) 35m 9 47 331 378 177 43 11 (.90%) (4.72%) (33.23%) (37.95%) (17.77%) (4.32%) (1.10%) Negative 24m 279 258 210 154 84 42 29 Mood (26.42%) (24.43%) (19.89%) (14.58%) (7.95%) (3.98%) (2.75%) 35m 424 268 190 67 36 5 6 (42.57%) (26.91%) (19.08%) (6.73%) (3.61%) (.50%) (.60%) Enthusiasm 24m 25 130 241 267 267 106 20 (2.37%) (12.31%) (22.82%) (25.28%) (25.28%) (10.04%) (1.89%) 35m 18 66 191 319 302 85 15 (1.81%) (6.63%) (19.18%) (32.03%) (30.32%) (8.53%) (1.51%) Persistence 24m 28 128 239 232 149 168 112 (2.65%) (12.12%) (22.63%) (21.97%) (14.11%) (15.91%) (10.61%) 35m 10 27 165 358 231 143 62 (1.00%) (2.71%) (16.57%) (35.94%) (23.19%) (14.36%) (6.22%) Note:n=1,056at24monthsandn=996at35months.n=1,125across24and35months. implyingthatthemeasurementmodelusedtodefinethelatentclasses zero,respectively.Forexample,iftheratioofprobabilitiesis.1,.5,1.0, wasinvariantforthepuzzletaskdatacollectedat24and35monthsof 2.0, or 10.0, the log odds are −2.30, −0.69, 0.00, 0.69, and 2.30, ageandthatthemeansoftheindicatorswereequaloveragesforeach respectively.Theresultsforeachequationshowhowthelogoddsof latent class in the model. The model selection criteria include the belongingtoaspecificcategoryorpatternversusthebaselinecategory Bayesianinformationcriterion(BIC;Schwartz,1978)andadjustedBIC, varyasafunctionoftheindependentvariablesintheequation.Once Akaike’s information criterion (AIC; Akaike, 1973), and entropy theequationsforthethreelogoddsareestimated,theresultscanbe (Shannon,1948),whichmeasuresclassificationaccuracy.Inaddition, usedtoestimateequationsforallotherpairsofcategories.(seeAgresti, themodel-impliedresponseprobabilitiesandmodel-impliedmeansfor 2007foradditionalinformationaboutBCLTMs). theindicatorswereinspectedforeachmodel.Theseresultsindicated The default in Mplus is to treat variables that appear only as in- usinga4-classmodelinthesubsequentsteps.Seetheresultssectionfor dependent variables, that is, the exogenous variables, asfixed values modelselectioncriteria. rather thanmeasured variables (Muthén&Muthén,1998-2012,p. 8). In part A of Step two of the LTA, a 4-class LCA model with four As a result, the exogenous variables are not part of the likelihood latent classes was estimated for the indicators at 24 months. The function and listwise deletion occurs in cases for which there are thresholds were constrained to equal those for the indicators at 24 missing scores on any of the exogenous variables. There were some months in Step one. In part B of Step two, a 4-class LCA model was caseswithmissingdataoninfantattention(n=31),positiveparenting estimatedfortheindicatorsat35monthsinwhichthethresholdvalues (n=88),andparentalperceivedfamilyeconomicstrains(n=86).To forthelatent classvariable werefixedatthevalues producedinthe avoidlistwisedeletionduetothesemissingscores,thesevariableswere outputfromstepone.InStepthree,twobaselinecategorylogisticre- regressedonchildgenderandchildrace,forwhichdatawascomplete. gressionmodels(BCLRMs)wereaddedtotheLTAmodel.Inthefirst, Inaddition,theresidualsintheseregressionequationswereallowedto thedependentvariablewasthelatentclassvariableat24monthsand becorrelated.Thisanalyticalstrategybroughtthefourvariablesinto the independent variables were child gender, child race, mother’s the likelihood function and avoided listwise deletion due to missing education(i.e.,covariates),andinfantattention,parentingbehaviorin scores.Asaresult,thesamplesizeforthefinalstepwas1125.Sampling thefirsttwoyears,andparentalperceivedfamilyeconomicstrains(i.e., weightswereappliedateachstepintheanalysis. predictors).Inthesecondmodel,thedependentvariablewasthelatent classvariableat35months.Theindependentvariablescomprisedthe 3. Results latent class variable at 24 months and the independent variables in- cludedinthefirstmultinomiallogisticregressionmodel.InaBCLRM 3.1. Descriptivestatistics for K categories, where K=4 in the present study, there are K −1 equations.Therefore,foreachage,therewerethreeequations.Ineach Response frequencies and percentages for the six child constructs equation,thedependentvariableisalogarithmofaratiooftheprob- (i.e., positive mood, negative mood, persistence, enthusiasm, com- abilitiesofmembershipintwoofthecategories.Oneofthe4categories pliance,andaggression)arepresentedinTable1.Descriptivestatistics, is referred to as the baseline category because it provides the prob- sample size for each independent (covariate or predictor) variable ability in the denominator for each of the 3 equations. In Mplus, by within the study sample (n=1125), and correlation coefficients are default,thebaselineorcontrastcategoryisthelastlatentclass.Each reportedinTable2.Overall,boysexperiencedsomewhatlesspositive logarithmisreferredtoasabaselinelogoddsorabaselinelogitand parentingthangirls(r=−.08,p < .05).BeingAfricanAmericanwas assessesthelikelihoodofbeinginaspecificcategoryversusthebaseline related to lower maternal education, (r=−.22, p < .001), and less category.Iftheprobabilityofbeinginthespecificcategoryissmaller, positive parenting(r=−.44, p < .001),andmore perceived family equalto,orlargerthantheprobabilityofbeinginthebaselinecategory economic strains by mothers (r=.23, p < .001). Higher maternal thenthelogoddsissmallerthanzero,equaltozero,andlargerthan education was also related to higher positive parenting (r=.47, (cid:25)(cid:26) F.Wangetal. (cid:40)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:79)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:38)(cid:75)(cid:76)(cid:79)(cid:71)(cid:75)(cid:82)(cid:82)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:53)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:70)(cid:75)(cid:3)(cid:52)(cid:88)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:79)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:23)(cid:20)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:20)(cid:26)(cid:12)(cid:3)(cid:25)(cid:22)(cid:178)(cid:26)(cid:22) Table2 DescriptiveStatisticsandBivariateCorrelationsAmongCovariates. ChildRacea ChildGenderb Maternal Infant PositiveParenting FamilyEconomicstrains(6) (1) (2) Education Attention (5) (3) (4) 1 1 2 .00 1 3 −.22*** −.01 1 4 −.01 .06+ .05+ 1 5 −.44*** −.08* .47*** .09** 1 6 .23*** −.05+ −.26*** −.06* −.22*** 1 M .51 .43 14.42 17.70 .83 13.47 SD .50 .50 2.82 2.43 .11 3.57 Minimum 0 0 6 4.50 .40 6 Maximum 1 1 22 24 1 26 N 1125 1125 1125 1094 1037 1039 Note:+p<.10.*p<.05.**p<.01.***p<.001.anon-AfricanAmerican=0;AfricanAmerican=1.bgirl=0;boy=1. p < .001), and less perceived family economic strains (r=−.26, levelsofenthusiasm.Descriptively,alowerpercentageofchildrenwere p < .001).Higherinfantattentionwasrelatedtosomewhatmorepo- classified in the CC pattern at age 24 months compared to age 35 sitive parenting (r=.09, p < .01) as well as less perceived family months (16.89% to 46.54%). A higher percentage of children were economicstrains(r=−.26,p < .001).Positiveparentingwascorre- classified in the PM pattern at 24 versus 35 months (36.56% vs. lated with less perceived family economic strains (r=−.22, 34.68%), and also in the ND pattern (17.53% vs. 5.1%) and the EM p < .001). pattern(29.01%vs.13.68%)at24monthsversus35months. Comparisonsofmodel-implied meansacross classes indicated sig- nificantmeandifferences in34out of36comparisons oflatent class 3.2. Task-orientedpatterns pairs onthe specific child variables (seeTable 3). Aneffectsize was calculated for each variable on each pair of latent classes. The nu- In Step 1, we estimated the two- to five-class unconditional LTA meratorwasthemeandifferenceandthedenominatorwasthesquare modelstodecidetheoptimalnumberofclassesat24monthsand35 rootoftheaverageofthemodel-impliedvariancesforthetwolatent months. Better models should have smaller values for AIC, BIC, and classesbeingcompared.ThiseffectsizeissimilartoCohen’sdandison samplesizeadjustedBICandhigherentropyvalues.WefoundAIC,BIC, thesamescaleasCohen’sd.Theeffectsizesranged from.22forag- and adjusted BIC values were the smallest for the 4-class solution gressionbetweenPMandCCpatternsto4.54forenthusiasmbetween (31715.501,32449.23,and31985.493respectively).Entropywas.80. thePMandtheNDpatterns.Thirtyoutofthe36valuesforCohen’sd Theseresultsindicatedfourclassesastheoptimalnumberofclassesat wereequaltoorgreaterthan.80,suggestinglargedifferencesamong 24 and 35 months. In addition, the model-implied response prob- thefourtask-orientedpatternsonthepuzzletaskvariables. abilitiesandmodel-impliedmeansforthepatternindicatorsweremore interpretableforfourclassesthanfortheothernumbersofclasses.See 3.3. Transitionprobabilities Fig.1forthemodel-impliedmeansandclassproportions. Specifically, at each age, the four classes indicated four distinct patternsoftask-orientedbehavioral,emotional,andattentionalefforts A major purpose of LTA is to estimate the probabilities of transi- tioningfrom24monthsto35monthsofagebetweenlatentclasses.The during challenging puzzle tasks in young children. The negative-dis- estimated latent transition probabilities reported in Table 4 indicate engaged(ND)patternhadacombinationoflowestpositivemood,en- approximately50%stabilityinthePMandCCpatternswith54.4%and thusiasm,persistence,andcompliancecombinedwiththehighestne- 54.2%ofchildrenwhodisplayedPMorCCpatternsrespectivelyat24 gativemoodandaggression.Thepositive-motivated(PM)patternhada monthsmaintainingthesamepatternat35months.Therewasalsoa combination of highest positive mood, enthusiasm, persistence, and considerable percentage of children with a PM pattern at 24 months compliance combined with the second lowest in negative mood and who did not maintain the same pattern at 35 months. Most of the aggression. The content-compliant (CC) pattern and the emotional- mixed (EM) pattern differed most on negative mood and compliance childrenwhohadaPMpatternat24monthsbuttransitionedtoanew pattern at35months, transitioned into theCCpattern (35.9%); very with the latter showing much higher negative mood and lower com- fewtransitionedintotheNDpattern(0.7%)ortheEMpattern(9.1%). pliance than the former pattern. These two patterns showed similar ForchildrenwithaCCpatternat24months,manytransitionedintothe PM pattern (35.4%) and very few transitioned into the ND pattern (3.3%) or the EM pattern (7.1%). There was substantial change for childrenwithanEMpatternat24months.About16.4%ofthemre- mainedinthesamepatternat35months,but48.3%and28.1%ofthem transitioned into the CC and PM patterns respectively. Only a small percentageofthemtransitionedintotheNDpattern(7.2%).Therewas also substantial change for children inthe NDpattern at 24months. Only17.7%ofchildrenwhostartedwiththeNDpatternat24months remainedinthatpatternat35monthsandsimilarpercentagestransi- tion into the CC (32.1%), the PM (24.6%), and the EM patterns (25.6%). 3.4. Predictorsoftask-orientedpatterns Fig.1.Estimatedmeansandpercentagesforthefour-classperformancepatternsat24 and35months.PM=Thepositive-motivatedpattern.ND=Thenegative-disengaged pattern.CC=Thecontent-compliantpattern.EM=theemotional-mixedpattern. Resultsforpredictionoftask-orientedpatternsareshowninTable5 (cid:25)(cid:27) F.Wangetal. (cid:40)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:79)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:38)(cid:75)(cid:76)(cid:79)(cid:71)(cid:75)(cid:82)(cid:82)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:53)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:70)(cid:75)(cid:3)(cid:52)(cid:88)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:79)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:23)(cid:20)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:20)(cid:26)(cid:12)(cid:3)(cid:25)(cid:22)(cid:178)(cid:26)(cid:22) Table3 EffectSizeforComparisonsofLatentClassesonPuzzleTaskVariables. Variable Comparison PMvs.ND PMvs.CC PMvs.EM NDvs.CC NDvs.EM CCvs.EM PositiveMood 2.04* 1.78* 0.96* −0.62* −1.22* −0.80* Enthusiasm 4.54* 2.76* 2.10* −1.84* −2.04* −0.38 Persistence 3.12* 0.96* 1.66* −2.02* −1.46* 0.64* Compliance 3.52* 0.26* 2.16* −3.14* −1.68* 1.78* NegativeMood −2.08* 0.24 −1.66* 2.26* 0.90* −1.94* Aggression −1.40* 0.22* −1.02* 1.44* 0.80* −1.12* *Significantmeandifferenceatα=.05. Table4 (i.e., higher probabilities) of being in the PM pattern versus the EM Estimatedlatenttransitionprobabilityinchildren’stask-orientedpatternsfrom24to35 pattern(b=5.13,p < .001,bz=.51).Havinglowerinfantattention months. wasrelatedtohigherlogodds(i.e.,higherprobabilities)ofbeinginthe ND versus the EM pattern (b=−.17, p < .01, b =.40). And less PM(35Mo) ND(35Mo) CC(35Mo) EM(35Mo) z perceivedeconomicstrainswasrelatedtohigherlogodds(i.e.,higher PM(24Mo) 54.4% 0.7% 35.9% 9.1% probabilities)ofbeingintheCCversustheEMpatternat24months ND(24Mo) 24.6% 17.7% 32.1% 25.6% (b=−.10,p < .01,b =−.36). z CC(24Mo) 35.4% 3.3% 54.2% 7.1% Wealso examinedthe additional predictor effects withother pat- EM(24Mo) 28.1% 7.2% 48.3% 16.4% terns as the contrast patterns. Specifically, with the ND pattern as a Note: PM=The positive-motivated pattern. ND=The negative-disengaged pattern. contrast pattern at 24 months, children with higher infant attention, CC=Thecontent-compliantpattern.EM=theemotional-mixedpattern.Boldarethe andmorepositiveparentinghadarelativelyhigherprobabilityofbeing percentagesofchildrenwhoremainedinthesametask-orientedpatternsfrom24months inthePMpatternthantheNDpattern(b=.20,p < .001,b =.47; z to35months.Percentagesineachrowsumto100%. b=6.33,p < .001,b =.63,respectively).Also,withtheCCpattern z asacontrastpatternat24months,childrenwithhigherinfantattention for 24 months and in Table 6 for 35 months. For dichotomous in- hadrelativehigherprobabilitiesofbeinginthePMpatternthaninthe dependent variables, unstandardized coefficients (b) with the corre- CC pattern (b=.16, p < .01, b =.37). Further, children with less z sponding standard errors are reported. For the other independent positive parenting had relative higher probabilities to be in the ND variables,unstandardizedcoefficientswiththecorrespondingstandard pattern(b=−4.15,p < .01,b =.42)thanintheCCpattern.At35 errors and standardized coefficients (bz) are reported. Each un- months,nosignificantpredictorzeffectsemerged. standardized coefficientrepresentsthedifferenceinthelogodds (in- dicatingprobabilitiesorlikelihood)forchildrenwhodifferbyonepoint ontheindependentvariable.Basedontheresultsshowninthesecond 4. Discussion columnofTable5,the−.54coefficientforchildgendermeansthatthe logoddsforgirlsislowerby.54thanisthelogoddsforboys.The.03 Thisstudycontributestotheliteraturebyidentifyingdistincttask- coefficientforinfantattentionmeansthatthelogoddsdifferby.03for oriented patterns during challenging tasks administered to young two children who differ by one point on infant attention. Each stan- children at home in the presence of their caregivers, the transition dardizedcoefficientrepresentsthedifferenceinthelogoddsforchil- probabilitiesofthetask-orientedpatterns,andtheeffectsofchildat- drenwhodifferbyonestandarddeviationontheindependentvariable. tention,parentingbehavior,andperceivedfamilyeconomicstrainson The.07standardizedcoefficientforinfantattentionmeansthatthelog children’smembershipintask-orientedpatterns.Wefoundfourdistinct oddsdiffersby.07fortwochildrenwhodifferbyonestandarddevia- task-oriented patterns in problem-solving tasks within parent-child tiononinfantattention.InTables5and6,werefertothenumerator dyads at 24 and 35 months: the positive and motivated (PM), the categoryastheoutcomepatternandthedenominatorcategoryasthe compliantcontent(CC),theemotionalmixed(EM),andthenegative contrastpattern. disengaged(ND)patterns.Wealsofoundthattherelativelymorepo- We found some significant predictors of children’s task-oriented sitiveandadaptivetask-orientedperformancepatterns(i.e.,thePMand patterns at 24 and 35 months after child gender, race and maternal CCpatterns)tendedtobemorestable,buttherelativelydisadvantaged educationwerecontrolled.At24months,withtheEMpatternasthe patterns (i.e., ND and EM patterns) had much more variability and contrastpattern,morepositiveparentingwasrelatedtohigherlogodds changefrom24to35months.Wefurtherfoundsignificanteffectsof infant attention, positive parenting, and family economic strains on Table5 Unstandardizedcoefficientsaandstandardizedcoefficientsbforthecovariateandpredictoreffectson24-monthtask-orientedpatternwithdifferentreferencegroups. OutcomePattern PM24m ND24m CC24m ContrastPattern EM ND CC EM CC EM Childgender −.54*(.21) −.56*(.24) −.04(.25) .02(.25) .52+(.28) −.50+(.28) Childrace .08(.23) −.46+(.27) −.76**(.25) .55*(.27) −.30(.29) .84**(.28) Maternaleducation .08+(.05).23 .11*(.05).32* .04(.05)(.12) −.03(.05)−.12 −.07(.05)−.20 .04(.05).12 Infantattention .03(.04).07 .20***(.05).47*** .16**(.05).37** −.17**(.06)−.40** −.04(.06)−.09 −.13*(.06)−.30* Positiveparenting 5.13***(1.37).51* 6.33***(1.39).63*** 2.18(1.63).22 −1.19(1.22)−.12 −4.15**(1.62)−.42** 2.96+(1.661).30 Perceivedfamilyeconomicstrains −.05(.04)−.18 .00(.04).00 .05(.04).18 −.05(.03)−.18 .05(.04).18 −.10**(.043)−.36** Note:+p<.10.*p<.05.**p<.01.***p<.001.aStandarderrorswereprovidedinthebracketsaftertheunstandardizedcoefficients.bStandardizedcoefficientswereprovided forcontinuespredictorsafterstandarderrors.N=1125.Thesamelatentclasspair(e.g.,PMvs.ND)withtheoutcomepatternasthecontrastpattern(i.e.,NDvs.PM)havethesame estimatedcoefficientwiththeoppositesignsandarenotrepeatedinthetable. (cid:25)(cid:28) F.Wangetal. (cid:40)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:79)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:38)(cid:75)(cid:76)(cid:79)(cid:71)(cid:75)(cid:82)(cid:82)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:53)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:70)(cid:75)(cid:3)(cid:52)(cid:88)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:79)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:23)(cid:20)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:20)(cid:26)(cid:12)(cid:3)(cid:25)(cid:22)(cid:178)(cid:26)(cid:22) Table6 Unstandardizedcoefficientsaandstandardizedcoefficientsbforthecovariateandpredictoreffectson35-monthtask-orientedpatternwithdifferentreferencegroups. OutcomePattern PM35m ND35m CC35m Contrastpattern ND CC EM CC EM EM Childgender −.79*(.37) .40*(.19) −.19(.29) 1.20***(.36) .60(.41) −.59*(.29) Childrace −.27(.36) −.19(.21) .17(.30) .08(.35) .45(.40) .37(.30) Maternaleducation −.05(.08)−.14 .04(.04).12 .10*(.05).29* .09(.07).26 .15+(.08).43+ .06(.05).17 Infantattention .08(.07).19 −.02(.04)−.05 .04(.06).09 −.10(.07)−.23 −.05(.08)−.12 .06(.05).14 Positiveparenting 2.66(1.81).27 1.66(1.24).17 2.41(1.57).24 −1.11(1.68)−.10 −.25(1.80)−.03 .75(1.45).08 Perceivedfamilyeconomicstrains −.05(.06)−.18 −.02(.03)−.07 −.04(.04)−.14 .03(.06).11 .01(.06).04 −.01(.04)−.04 Note:+p<.10.*p<.05.**p<.01.***p<.001.N=1125.aStandarderrorswereprovidedinthebracketsaftertheunstandardizedcoefficientsbStandardizedcoefficientswere providedforcontinuespredictorsafterstandarderrors.Thesamelatentclasspair(e.g.,PMvs.ND)withtheoutcomepatternasthecontrastpattern(i.e.,NDvs.PM)havethesame estimatedcoefficientwiththeoppositesignsandarenotrepeatedinthetable. children’stask-orientedpatternsat24months. toadditional empiricalinvestigation. Testing differentdevelopmental Thefindingoffourdistinctandconsistenttask-orientedpatternsat sequelae of the different task-oriented patterns in early childhood as both toddler and preschool ages suggests thatasearly asthetoddler relatedtoschoolreadinessandadjustmentinfutureresearchmayhelp age,differentchildrenhavedifferentconstellationsofbehavior,emo- earlychildhoodservicestailorsupportforchildrenwithdifferenttask- tion,andattentioninchallengingproblem-solvingtasksinthepresence orientedpatterns.Forexample,forchildrenwithaPMpattern,itmay ofacaregiverathome.Thesedifferentconstellationsreflectchildren’s beimportanttoadjustthelevelofchallengeswithencouragementto differentpatternsofearlycapacitiesandqualitieswithwhichtheyac- sustaintheirinterest,persistence,andtaskcommitmentinconsidera- commodate and adapt to age-appropriate challenges. Understanding tion of the “Yerkes-Dodson law” (Yerkes&Dodson, 1908) that mod- patterns of efforts in adapting to age-appropriate challenges may be eratelevelofarousalpromotesbestperformance.Forchildrenwithan relevanttounderstandingtheirlatereffortinacademicsettingswhere ND pattern, it may be important to direct scaffolding efforts toward challengesareexpectedforlearningtooccur.Indeed,extantliterature enhancingtheirregulatorycapacitiesinbehavior,emotion,andatten- hasprovidedevidencesupportingthatdiscretecapacitiesandqualities tion (Hammond, Muller, Carpendale, Bibok,&Liebemann-Finestone, arerelatedtoschoolreadiness.Forexample,children’sabilitytofocus 2012).ForchildrenwithaCCpattern,theymightnotshowexceptional attentionandpersistinchallengingtasksisrelatedtopositiveeduca- performanceonachallengingproblem-solvingtaskorgaintheatten- tionaloutcomes(e.g.,Berhenkeetal.,2011;McDermottetal.,2014). tion of teachers for misbehavior, but they may benefit from teacher Children who exhibit self-control and who follow directions and be- effortstomotivatetheirenthusiasmandpersistenceduringchallenging haviorexpectationsindevelopmentallyappropriatecontextsaremore problemsolvingtasks.ForchildrenwithanEMpattern,interventionsin likelytoadoptsocietalvaluesandrules(Kochanskaetal.,2010)and regardtoemotionregulationstrategiesalongwithfosteringinterestand benefitfromlearning.Inthisstudy,takingadvantageofaperson-or- persistence toward challenging problem solving may be necessary to iented approach to analysis within the context of challenging puzzle preparethemforexpectationsassociatedwithformalschoolingwhere tasks,wecontributetotheliteraturebydelineatingaholisticpicture self-regulation is emphasized and academic challenges are norms about young children’s constellations of regulatory strengths and (Eisenberg,Valiente,&Eggum,2010).Furthertestingofthesepotential weaknesses under challenges that may be relevant to their school prevention and intervention approaches will help elucidate the prac- readinessandperformanceinacademicsettings. tical relevance of identifying young children’s task-oriented patterns Specifically,childrenwiththepositivemotivated(PM)patternde- towardchallengingproblemsolvingtasks. monstrate relativelyhighlevelsofpositivemood,enthusiasm,persis- The transition probability findings from the LTA addressed our tenceandcomplianceandlownegativemoodandaggressionthatmay second major research question with interesting patterns of stability representbehavioral,emotional,andattentionalregulatorycapacities and transitions. Specifically, the PM pattern was rather stable from necessaryforschoolreadiness.Childreninthecontentcompliant(CC) toddlertopreschoolagesandveryfewchildrentransitionedintothe pattern,whilebeingverycompliant,mightnotenjoychallengingtasks NDpattern.Thisgivesevidencethatthepositiveperformancepattern andmightmightnotfulfilltheirfullpotentialinproblemsolvingtasks. may tend to be self-reinforcing once established, consistent with the Childrenintheemotionalmixed(EM)pattern showhigherpositive propositionfromdevelopmentalsystemstheorythatanindividualisa mood(ascomparedtotheCCandNDpatterns)ANDhighernegative self-organizing entity with continuity in behavior (Thelen&Smith, mood(ascomparedtothePMandCCpatterns),whichmightindicate 2006).Itisalsolikelythattheenvironmentmighthavesupportedthe difficulties in regulating the valence of affect and mood during chal- development of positive regulatory efforts in children as numerous lengingproblem-solvingtasks.Childrenwiththenegativedisengaged studieshavesuggested.Forexample,Hammondetal.(2012)demon- (ND) pattern, however, might possess relative lower levels of beha- stratethatparental scaffoldingatage3supportschildren’sexecutive vioral,emotional,andattentionalcontrolforschoolreadiness.Children functionatage4.Ourstudyalsofoundtheeffectofpositiveparenting who were positive and motivated and those who were content and onchildren’stask-orientedpatternsaspresentedbelow.Further,chil- compliantmaybemorelikelytoadjustwellsociallywhentransitioning dren with a positive performance pattern might gain more positive intokindergartenbutchildrenwhowereemotionalmixedornegative feedback, which might facilitate a positive cycle of supporting the and disengaged could experience more emotional difficulties in tran- maintenanceofpositiveperformanceovertime.Forexample,research sition to school. Also, given the relative high level of positive mood, ingenotype-environmentcorrelationssupportsthatchildrenmayevoke enthusiasm, persistence, and compliance and low level of negative environmental responses given their own genotype and phenotypic moodandaggressioninchildrenofthePMpattern,itisreasonableto behaviors(Plomin,DeFries,&Loehlin,1977;Scarr&McCartney,1983). expect that this task-oriented pattern probably indicates regulatory WealsofoundthatmanychildrenshiftedfromtheCC,NDandEM strengthsacrosslevelsforschoolsuccesswhereaschildrenwithCC,EM patternstothePMpatternandthepercentagesofchildrenwhoshifted and ND patterns probably possess different levels of regulatory intotheNDandEMpatternsaremuchsmallerthanthosewhoshifted strengthsandweaknessesthatwarrantattention. intothePMandCCpatternsfrom24to35months.Theseshifts,while Nevertheless,thehypothesesdescribedaboveshouldbesubjected testifyingtothediscontinuityandcomplexityaspectsofdevelopment (cid:26)(cid:19) F.Wangetal. (cid:40)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:79)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:38)(cid:75)(cid:76)(cid:79)(cid:71)(cid:75)(cid:82)(cid:82)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:53)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:70)(cid:75)(cid:3)(cid:52)(cid:88)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:79)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:23)(cid:20)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:20)(cid:26)(cid:12)(cid:3)(cid:25)(cid:22)(cid:178)(cid:26)(cid:22) according to the dynamic systems theory of development positiveemotionaltoneandcleardirectionswithtoddlersofexuberant (Thelen&Smith, 2006), correspond well with the developmental ad- temperamenthadtoddlerswhoshowedmoreeffortfulcontrolatpre- vancesinchildren’scapacitiesforself-controlacrossdomainsbypre- school ages as compared to mothers of exuberant toddlers who had schoolages(e.g.,Kochansca,1993;Sroufe,1979).Thesenaturalshifts moreneutralemotionaltone andused reasoning andexplanationsto provide evidence for the organizational perspective of development communicate with their children. Further, it should be noted that thatbypreschoolageschildrenstarttoestablishtheirindependentself- childrenmayalsoelicitcertainparentingbehaviorswhichiscommonly regulation abilities (e.g., Egeland et al., 2002; Kochanska, 1993). called the “child effect” on parents (Author Reference, 2013; Plomin Therefore, it may be important to offer support or intervention for etal.,1977;Scarr&McCartney,1983).Achildwhoispersistentontask childrenwhoarestrugglingwithestablishingtheirself-regulatoryre- withmuchenthusiasmandpositiveaffectislikelytodrawmoreposi- pertoireintermsofbehavior,emotion,andattentionregulationstarting tiveaffectandsupportfromparentsthanachildwhoisfussy,whining, atagethree. and resistant in engaging in a task. The occurrence of genotype-en- The fact that a small number of children shifted from the more vironmentcorrelationinwhichchildrenevokeresponsesfromtheen- adaptivepattern(e.g.,PMpattern)intothelessadaptivepattern(e.g., vironment has been discussed by behavioral geneticists (e.g., Plomin NDpattern)indicatesthatthepatternshiftsarenotnecessarilyparallel etal.,1977;Scarr&McCartney,1983).Futurestudyofchildren’stask- to the natural advances in regulatory capacities from toddler ages to oriented patterns may consider alternative parenting behaviors and preschool ages. When negative individual or environmental events additional child factors asrelated tochildren’s behavioral, emotional occur,whichcouldhavebeenmorelikelyinthepredominantlylow- andattentionaleffortstowardchallengingproblemsolving. incomeruralsampleinvolvedinthepresentstudy,childrenmaylose Wefoundthatperceivedfamilyeconomicstrainsdifferentiatedthe theinitialregulatoryadvantagesandacquireregulatorypatternsthat CCpatternversustheEMpatternsignificantly:childrenofparentswith are not adaptive. This possibility is demonstrated in studies that ex- fewereconomicstrainsweremorelikelytobeintheCCthanintheEM amine developmental discontinuity due to negative events. For ex- pattern.ItisworthnotingthatchildrenintheEMpatternactuallyhad ample,Weinfield,Sroufe,andEgeland(2000)reporteddiscontinuityin significantly higher infant attention than children in the CC pattern. attachment classification from infancy to early adulthood due to the Themajordifferencesinthesetwopatternswerethatchildreninthe interruptionofmaternaldepression,maltreatmentexperience,andex- EMpatternhadmuchhighernegativemoodandlesscompliancethan posuretoadversefamilyfunctioning. thoseintheCCpattern.Consideringthatfamilyeconomicadversityand Withregardtothethirdresearchquestion,resultsontheeffectsof strainsarerelatedtoemotionandbehaviordysregulation(Evans,2004; child attention, parenting behavior, and perceived family economic Mistry et al., 2002) and physiological markers of stress strains on children’s membership in the task-oriented pattern at 24 (Evans&English,2002),itmaybethathighperceivedfamilyeconomic months indicate different sources of regulatory strengths and weak- strains imply high stress in the family that interrupts children’s reg- nesseswithinthechildandtheenvironment.Thefindingthatchildren ulationoftheirmoodandbehaviorsuchthattheirtask-orientedpattern higherininfantattentionweremorelikelytobeinthePMpatternthan showsmorenegativemoodandnon-compliance. intheNDandCCpatternsat24monthshelpsexplainhigherlevelsof Therewerenosignificanteffectsofthesechild,parent,andfamily behavioral,emotional,andattentionaleffortsinthePMpatternandis variablesonchildren’stask-orientedpatternsat35monthsafterchild consistent with the literature. Specifically, Cuevas and Bell (2014) gender, race, and maternal education were controlled and after ac- foundthatinfantattentionat5monthsissignificantlyrelatedtohigher countingformembershipeffectsat24months.Additionalpost-hoctests executivefunctionperformanceatagetwo,three,andfour.Infantat- of the predictor effects on children’s task-oriented patterns at 35 tention did not significantly predict membership in the PM pattern monthswithoutcontrollingforchildren’stask-orientedpatternsat24 versustheEMpatternbutdidpredicthigherprobabilityofmembership months did not yield any significant prediction. This prediction of intheEMpatterncomparedtotheNDandCCpatterns.Thisindicates patternsat24monthsbutnotat35monthsmayhavebeenduetothe that while the EM pattern may suggest difficulties in regulating the shortertimespanbetweencollectionofthepredictordataandthe24 valence of affect and emotion, children in this pattern may have monthspuzzletasks.Alternatively,theremightbesomeunknownde- strength in attentional capabilities. From the positive development velopmentalorenvironmentalchangesthatoccurredbetween24and perspective(Cabrera&theSRCDEthnicandRacialIssuesCommittee, 35monthsthatwedidnottestinourmodels.Forfutureresearch,itis 2013),thisattentionalqualitycanbedrawnupontohelpthesechildren necessarytoreplicatethepredictoreffectsonchildren’stask-oriented movetowardbeingnotonlyattentive,butalsopositiveandmotivated patterns in early childhood to help understand the role of each pre- inchallengingproblem-solvingsettings. dictorinchildren’stask-orientedpatternsatdifferenttimepoints. Wealsofoundaparentingeffectinthatchildrenwithamorepo- sitivelyratedparentingenvironmentweremorelikelytobeinthePM 4.1. Limitationsandstrengths andCCpatternsthanintheNDandEMpatterns.Thisfindingsuggests that more positive parenting with higher responsiveness and accep- The sample comprised rural children who lived in predominantly tance in the first two years is related to more positive task-oriented low-incomehouseholds.Findingsfromthisstudyneedtobereplicated patterns(e.g.,PM&CCpatterns)towardchallengingproblemsolving withsamples ofother types tovalidatefurther the task-oriented pat- asearlyastoddlerhood. Itispossiblethatparents’abilitytorespond terns in young children and the predicting effects of child attention, appropriatelytochildren’scuesandneedsandtheirabilitytoaccept parenting behavior, and perceived family economic strains. Second, ratherthandisproveofchildren’sinitiativesandbehaviorsmayfacil- whilethechildvariableswerecodedinarigorouswaythatfocusedon itate children’s curiosity, interest, persistence, and behavioral and children’s problem-solving efforts regardless of parents’ support, the emotionregulation.Allthesefacilitatedchildqualitiespavethewayfor taskwasadministeredinthepresenceoftheparent.Withoutparents a well-coordinated positive motivated task-oriented pattern under present,children’stask-oriented efforts mightdiffergiventhelackof challengingproblem-solvingtasks.Supportingmaternalresponsiveness availableexternalresourcesandsupportinthepresenceofachallen- toandacceptanceofchildren’sbehaviorinthefirsttwoyearsmaybe ging task. It is their internalized skills and independent efforts that importantdirectionsinearlyinterventionservicestohelpsupporttheir matterthemostinnavigatingtheirchallenges,theskillsandeffortsthat children’s behavioral, emotional and attentional regulation when are likely to beemphasized in academic learning where children are workingtowardchallengingtasks. expected to grow and adapt as independent problem solvers. Future Other studies have also considered how parental factors may in- replicationmaybeneededtoexaminechildren’stask-orientedefforts teract with child factors in predicting child outcomes. For example, duringproblem-solvingtaskswithoutthepresenceofparents.Further, Cipriano and Stifter (2010) reported that parents who showed a thecurrentstudyfocusesonidentifyingdistincttask-orientedpatterns (cid:26)(cid:20) F.Wangetal. 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ERIC ED581279: Children's Task Oriented Patterns in Early Childhood: A Latent Transition Analysis

Similar ERIC ED581279: Children's Task Oriented Patterns in Early Childhood: A Latent Transition Analysis