Violent Conflict and its Aftermath in Jos and Kano, Nigeria

127 Pages·2012·0.38 MB·English

Religions and Development
Research Programme
Violent Conflict and its Aftermath
in Jos and Kano, Nigeria: What
is the Role of Religion?
Shedrack Gaya Best
Centre for Conflict Management and Peace Studies, University of
Jos, currently on leave as Secretary to the Government of Plateau
State, Nigeria.
Carole Rakodi
International Development Department, School of
Government and Society, University of Birmingham
Working Paper 69 - 2011
Religions and Development
Research Programme
The Religions and Development Research Programme Consortium is an international research
partnership that is exploring the relationships between several major world religions, development in
low-income countries and poverty reduction. The programme is comprised of a series of comparative
research projects that are addressing the following questions:
(cid:2) How do religious values and beliefs drive the actions and interactions of individuals and faith-based
organisations?
(cid:2) How do religious values and beliefs and religious organisations influence the relationships between
states and societies?
(cid:2) In what ways do faith communities interact with development actors and what are the outcomes with
respect to the achievement of development goals?
The research aims to provide knowledge and tools to enable dialogue between development partners
and contribute to the achievement of development goals. We believe that our role as researchers is
not to make judgements about the truth or desirability of particular values or beliefs, nor is it to urge a
greater or lesser role for religion in achieving development objectives. Instead, our aim is to produce
systematic and reliable knowledge and better understanding of the social world.
The research focuses on four countries (India, Pakistan, Nigeria and Tanzania), enabling the research
team to study most of the major world religions: Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Sikhism, Buddhism and
African traditional belief systems. The research projects will compare two or more of the focus
countries, regions within the countries, different religious traditions and selected development activities
and policies.
The consortium consists of six research partner organisations, each of which is working with other
researchers in the four focus countries:
(cid:2) University of Birmingham, UK: International Development Department, Department of Theology and
Religion, Centre for West African Studies, Centre for the Study of Global Ethics.
(cid:2) University of Bath, UK: Centre for Development Studies.
(cid:2) Indian Institute of Dalit Studies, New Delhi.
(cid:2) Nigerian Institute of Social and Economic Research, Ibadan.
(cid:2) University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
(cid:2) Lahore University of Management Sciences, Pakistan.
In addition to the research partners, links have been forged with non-academic and non-government
bodies, including Islamic Relief.
http://www.rad.bham.ac.uk Contact: [email protected]
Religions and Development
Working Paper 69
Violent Conflict and its Aftermath
in Jos and Kano, Nigeria: What
is the Role of Religion?
Shedrack Gaya Best
Centre for Conflict Management and Peace Studies, University of
Jos, currently on leave as Secretary to the Government of Plateau
State, Nigeria.
Carole Rakodi
International Development Department, School of Government
and Society, University of Birmingham
ISBN: 978 0 7044 2886 7
© International Development Department, University of Birmingham
This document is an output from a project funded by UK Aid from
the UK Department for International Development (DFID) for the
benefit of developing countries. The views expressed are not
necessarily those of DFID.
Working Paper 69
Violent Conflict and its Aftermath in Jos and Kano, Nigeria: What is the Role of Religion?
Contents
Acknowledgements
Summary 1
List of acronyms 4
1 Introduction 5
1.1 Methodological approach 8
1.2 Organization of the paper 10
2 Communal conflict and violence in Nigeria: characteristics and trends 11
2.1 Nigeria: the political, economic, social and religious context 12
2.2 Broad categories of communal competition and conflict 19
2.3 Increasing violence? Trends and possible explanations 35
3 Communal conflict and violence in Kano and Jos 48
3.1 Conflict and violence in Kano 49
3.2 Conflict and violence in Jos 56
3.3 Contexts and dynamics: comparing trajectories and episodes of conflict
and violence in Kano and Jos 60
4 The coping strategies of those affected by urban violence 65
4.1 Strategies during the violence and its immediate aftermath 65
4.2 Return and adaptation 67
4.3 Relocation and resettlement 68
5 The roles of the state during violent episodes and their aftermath 72
5.1 Restoring order 72
5.2 Preventing or exacerbating violence? 74
5.3 Providing relief 75
5.4 Ensuring justice 76
5.5 Peacebuilding and conflict prevention 78
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6 The roles of non-state actors and organizations in violent episodes and
their aftermath 79
6.1 Providing relief and support 79
6.2 Reconstruction and rehabilitation: returning to normalcy? 86
6.3 The long-term aftermath: relocation, conflict prevention and peacebuilding 89
7 Conclusion and implications 93
Appendix: List of interviews 103
Notes 106
References 111
Acknowledgements
The leader of the Nigerian research team was Shedrack Best, who wishes to record his appreciation
of the roles played by other members of the team, which was made up of:
Professor Habu Galadima of the Department of Political Science, University of Jos, who led the research

assistants in Jos, organized interviews with Muslim informants and helped to put together drafts of the
Jos city report.
Professor Sati Fwatshak of the Department of History and International Studies, University of Jos, for his

assistance with field research in Jos, particularly with Christian informants, and in assisting with the
preliminary report for Jos.
Dr. Mohammed Kuna of the Department of Sociology, Uthman Danfodio University Sokoto, Nigeria, for

serving as the lead researcher for Kano and helping with writing the preliminary report for Kano city.
Mr. Mahmoud Muhammad Lawan of the Department of Political Science, Bayero University, Kano, who

conducted interviews and held Focus Group Discussions with Muslim FBOs and individuals in Kano
Mrs. Katherine Hoomlong of the Centre for Conflict Management and Peace Studies, University of Jos,

who assisted with the content analysis of the media coverage of the violent conflicts in Jos.
Mrs. Fatima Angela Ibrahim, Centre for Information Technology and Development, Zumunchi Building,

Kofar Kabuga, Kano, who was a research assistant on the media and other secondary sources of data
in Kano.
1
Violent Conflict and its Aftermath in Jos and Kano, Nigeria: What is the Role of Religion?
Summary
This study examined protracted inter-religious conflict in Nigeria, focusing on recent violent episodes
and their aftermath. Because much of the violence has been urban and because the violence itself
and subsequent recovery and reconstruction are strongly influenced by contextual factors, the
research was conducted in two cities: Kano in northern, predominantly Muslim Kano state (1999 and
2004), and Jos, the capital of Plateau State, in the religiously mixed Middle Belt (2001 and 2008).
Hostility between Christians and Muslims in Nigeria has deep historical roots and is linked to politics
characterized by struggles between the northern and southern states over access to federal power
and resources, inequalities in access to opportunities and different views about legal regimes. Over
the last thirty years, the frequency of violence with a religious dimension appears to have increased. It
pits Muslims against Christians and Islamic sects against each other. The study used secondary
sources, including the media, semi-structured interviews with a wide range of informants and focus
group discussions to ascertain the role of religion in the causes, triggers and consequences of the
violence.
To some extent, use of the ‘federal character principle’ since the 1980s to ensure a balance between
ethnic and religious groups in federal offices and attempts to increase inter-faith dialogue and
cooperation have had positive results. However religious revivalism and competition, formal
democratization, shrinking state resources, growing poverty and inequality, and international
influences, have contributed to the increasing salience of religion in politics and the periodic
degeneration of political and religious competition into violence. It is difficult, if not impossible, to
disentangle the role of religious, ethnic and indigene/settler differences in explaining conflict, but it is
clear that the failure of the state to manage diversity and prevent violence (and its complicity in some
instances) has contributed to the changing geography of violent clashes and the apparent increase in
their frequency in recent years.
The ineptitude, partiality and violence of the security forces, especially the police, has further
undermined people’s confidence in them, and state responses to underlying problems, reconstruction
and the desire for justice have been unsatisfactory. Relations between communal groups in urban
areas have deteriorated under the pressure of increased poverty and inequality, youth marginalization
and aggressive religious revivalism. However, rather than differences in religious doctrines being the
cause of violence (except in some intra-Muslim clashes), religion appears to have been
2
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instrumentalized by the powerful in both cities. There are more similarities in the characteristics of
conflict and violence between the two cities than differences, despite their different histories, ethnic
and religious composition, party politics and economic trajectories. Underlying apparently religious
conflicts in both are majority/minority struggles over access to political power and economic
competition.
For example, the violence in Jos appears to be primarily about control over local government,
especially in Jos North, which is contested between indigenous and settler groups, although the
conflict has become polarized along religious lines. In addition to competition between Muslims and
Christians, hosts/indigenes and migrants/settlers, social dynamics in both cities are complicated by
other rivalries. The triggers of individual violent episodes differ. Official, media and residents’ accounts
tend to focus on the perpetrators of violence, often blaming it on foreigners, almajirai (religious
students) or Yandaba (youth groups). However, these appear to be scapegoats – there is a reluctance
to identify the instigators: those who foment religious conflict and violence, manipulate identity in their
own interests, and recruit Yandaba and similar groups as perpetrators.
In protracted social conflict, the potential for further violence depends on, for example, whether
physical security can be ensured, the state and social institutions can prevent conflict escalating into
violence, and fear and hostility persist. The research demonstrated that in Kano, and particularly in
Jos, these conditions (and increased residential segregation) are more likely to presage further
violence than lasting peace.
The Federal and State governments both played roles in restoring order and providing funds for relief,
although they are not always neutral. However, they have not brought the instigators or perpetrators of
violence to justice; tackled poverty and inequality; addressed contradictory conceptions of citizenship;
or created effective and accountable local government structures.
Some religious actors are instigators or perpetrators of violence, but religious organizations also (out
of necessity) provide sanctuary, immediate relief and limited assistance with the rebuilding of everyday
lives. Most prioritize their own members and the reconstruction of religious buildings, both of which
may exacerbate religious antagonisms. Their peace building efforts are limited. Secular NGOs also
Violent Conflict and its Aftermath in Jos and Kano, Nigeria: What is the Role of Religion? 3
play roles in relief, reconstruction and peace building, reaching out to people in need regardless of
religion, but their activities are small scale and dependent on external resources.
There is some evidence that since 2004 in Kano, relationships between communities have started to
mend and some neighbourhoods are becoming more ethnically and religiously mixed. However,
conflicts continue and the likelihood that they will erupt into violence again depends largely on whether
government acts to reform the security forces and promote good governance. Inter-religious violence
has erupted again in Jos and there is a growing fear that the city may become trapped in a cycle of
violence and vengeance.
Conflict in both Jos and Kano is underlain by historical trends and deep contradictions, which can only
be addressed through long term initiatives. However, it is also possible to identify issues that can be
tackled by policy makers, development actors and religious bodies in the shorter term:
FBOs and NGOs can play important roles in conflict transformation but can only supplement the efforts

of the state, which must drive the process by supporting victims, punishing perpetrators, improving
coordination of relief efforts, and instituting measures to prevent future violence.
Following assessment of existing initiatives, support is needed for local institutions engaged in improving

access to education and livelihood opportunities and building bridges between increasingly segregated
communities.
Security sector reforms and efforts to curtail the spread of small arms and light weapons should be

stepped up.
The reports of official commissions of enquiry should be published and their recommendations acted

upon, including reforms to the judicial system to ensure that instigators and perpetrators are brought to
justice.
In the longer term

Democratic and electoral processes must provide a level playing field for different political actors

and a means of ensuring accountability.
Constitutional changes are needed to resolve the contradictions between citizenship and

indigeneity, and between state secularism and the integration of religion in the state.
4
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List of acronyms
CAN Christian Association of Nigeria
CFSJE Christian Foundation for Social Justice and Equity
COCIN Church of Christ in Nigeria
CWF COCIN Women Fellowship
CWO Catholic Women Organization
ECWA Evangelical Churches of West Africa (see also TEKAN)
EPRT Emergency Preparedness and Response Team
FBO Faith-Based Organization
FCS Fellowship of Christian Students
FGD Focus group discussion
FGN Federal Government of Nigeria
FOMWAN Federation of Muslim Women’s Association of Nigeria
GRA Government Residential Area
HRW Human Rights Watch
ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross
IDP Internally displaced person
JDPC Justice, Development and Peace Commission
JIBWIS Jama’atu Izalatil Bidi’ah Wa’ikamatis Sunnah
JNI Jama’atu Nasril Islam
JPRM Justice, Peace and Reconciliation Movement
LGA Local Government Area
LUCODA Lutheran Community Development Association
MOPOL Mobile Police
NEMA National Emergency Management Agency
OLA Our Lady of Apostle Hospital
PDP Peoples Democratic Party
PFN Pentecostal Fellowship of Nigeria
PLASEMA Plateau State Emergency Management Agency
RURCON Rural Development Counselors for Christian Churches in Africa
TEKAN Tarayyan Ekilisiyoyin Krista a Nigeria (Fellowship of Christian Evangelical Churches of
Nigeria) (see also ECWA)
WAPNET West Africa Peace Network
WIPNET Women in Peace Network