The American Presidency (Learn and Explore)

146 Pages·2009·13.63 MB·English

by  Encyclopedia Britannica Editorial

L & E
EARN XPLORE
The American
Presidency
Compton’s Britannica®
by
CHICAGO LONDON NEWDELHI PARIS SEOUL SYDNEY TAIPEI TOKYO
Learn&Exploreseries
TheAmericanPresidency
Compton’sbyBritannica
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iii
EDITOR’SPREFACE The2008U.S.presidentialelectionwasonewithseveralhistoricimplications.
DuringtheDemocraticprimariesSenatorBarackObamabecamethefirstAfrican
Americantobenominatedforthepresidencybyeithermajorparty.Hisclosest
rivalwasSenatorHillaryRodhamClintonwho,ifshehadwonthenomination,
wouldhavemadehistoryaswellbybecomingthefirstwomannominatedby
eithermajorparty.TheRepublicansnominatedSenatorJohnMcCainwho,if
elected,wouldhavebecometheoldestcandidatetohaveenteredtheoffice.His
choiceofGovernorSarahPalinashisvice-presidentialrunningmatewasyet
anotherhistoricmilestoneinthatshewasthefirstwomannominatedforthat
officebytheRepublicanparty.IntheendmorehistorywasmadebyBarack
ObamawhenonNov.4,2008,hewaselected44thpresidentoftheUnitedStates,
thefirstAfricanAmericantoholdtheoffice.
TheAmericanPresidencyisareviewofthepeoplewhohaveheldtheofficefrom
GeorgeWashingtontoBarackObama.Eachprofileispresentedinaformatthat
iseithertwo,three,orfourpagesandincludeseachpresident’ssignature,who
servedasvicepresident,aprofileofthefirstladies,andtimelines.The
introductionwaswrittenbyauthorThomasJ.Craughwellwhohaswritten
booksonavarietyofsubjectsincludingpolitics.FailuresofthePresidents:Fromthe
WhiskeyRebellionandWarof1812totheBayofPigsandWarinIraq(2008)and
StealingLincoln’sBody(2007)areamonghisbest-sellers.Hisintroductionforthis
volumecanbefoundonpagevi.WhatfollowsisanoverviewarticletitledOffice
ofthePresidentwhichoutlinespresidentialduties.Articlesonthepresidentsare
thenpresentedintheorderoftheirservice.Thereis,however,onlyoneentryfor
GroverClevelandwhoservedbothas22ndand24thpresident. Followingthe
finalprofilearearticlesonthePresidentialElectionProcess,Cabinet,White
House,atableofelectionresults,andcapsulesonthepresidentialflagandthe
presidentialsealhistory.Abibliographyandtwo-pageindexcompletethe
volume.
OvertheyearsithasbeentheCompton’straditiontoinspireambition,to
stimulatetheimagination,andtoprovidetheinquiringmindwithaccurate
information.Withover175images,43timelines,and33worldeventsmaps,The
AmericanPresidencyjoinsthefamilyofCompton’sbyBritannicaproductsthathave
beendesignedtodojustthat.
iv
STAFF EDITOR INFORMATION ARTAND MEDIAASSET ENCYCLOPÆDIA
AnthonyL.Green MANAGEMENT COMPOSITION MANAGEMENT BRITANNICA,INC.
ANDRETRIEVAL StevenN.Kapusta, JeannineDeubel, JacobE.Safra,
SENIOREDITOR Carmen-MariaHetrea, Director Manager ChairmanoftheBoard
MichaelJ.Anderson Director KurtHeintz JorgeAguilar-Cauz,
Illustrator
JohnHiggins President
ChristineMcCabe
ASSOCIATEEDITOR SheilaVasich MANUFACTURING MichaelRoss,
JoanHibler Layout KimGerber, SeniorVicePresident
PRODUCTION GraphicDesigner Director CorporateDevelopment
COPY CONTROL CateNichols DaleH.Hoiberg,
MarilynL.Barton
SylviaWallace, SeniorVicePresident
Director PHOTOS andEditor
DennisSkord, EDITORIALLIBRARY KathyNakamura, MarshaMackenzie,
Supervisor HenryBolzon, Manager ManagingEditorand
HeadLibrarian
ClaireRooney PhotoEditor DirectorofProduction
RobertM.Lewis
KimberlyL.Cleary
LarsMahinske
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction ...................................vi TheodoreRoosevelt.............................70
OfficeofthePresident ...........................1 WilliamHowardTaft ...........................74
GeorgeWashington..............................2 WoodrowWilson ...............................77
JohnAdams ....................................6 WarrenG.Harding .............................81
ThomasJefferson ................................9 CalvinCoolidge................................83
JamesMadison.................................13 HerbertHoover ................................86
JamesMonroe .................................16 FranklinD.Roosevelt ...........................89
JohnQuincyAdams ............................19 HarryS.Truman ...............................93
AndrewJackson................................22 DwightD.Eisenhower ..........................97
MartinVanBuren ..............................26 JohnF.Kennedy...............................101
WilliamHenryHarrison.........................29 LyndonB.Johnson ............................104
JohnTyler .....................................31 RichardM.Nixon .............................107
JamesK.Polk ..................................33 GeraldR.Ford ................................110
ZacharyTaylor.................................36 JimmyCarter .................................113
MillardFillmore................................38 RonaldReagan ................................116
FranklinPierce .................................40 GeorgeBush ..................................120
JamesBuchanan................................42 BillClinton ...................................123
AbrahamLincoln...............................44 GeorgeW.Bush ...............................126
AndrewJohnson ...............................48 BarackObama ................................129
UlyssesS.Grant................................51 PresidentialElectionProcess ....................131
RutherfordB.Hayes ............................54 Cabinet ......................................132
JamesA.Garfield...............................57 WhiteHouse .................................133
ChesterA.Arthur ..............................59 Table:PresidentialElectionResults...............134
GroverCleveland ..............................62 PresidentialSealandFlagHistory ...............136
BenjaminHarrison .............................65 FurtherResources .............................136
WilliamMcKinley ..............................67 Index ........................................137
vi
THE AMERICAN PRESIDENCY
ThisintroductionwascontributedbyThomasJ.Craughwell,authorofStealingLincoln’sBody
(HarvardUniversityPress,2007)andFailuresofthePresidents(FairWindsPress,2008).Hehas
writtenarticlesonhistory,politics,religion,andpopularcultureforTheWallStreetJournal,The
NewYorkTimes,U.S.NewsandWorldReport,TheAmericanSpectator,Emmymagazine,
andInsidetheVatican.
INTRODUCTION
In1789theworldwasruledbykingsandqueens, setasidemillionsofacresofwildernessasnational
emperorsandempresses,sultansandrajahs.Nonation parks.
hadeverbeengovernedbyapresident,sowhenGeorge AfterWorldWarIIthepresidenttookonagreater
WashingtonwaselectedfirstpresidentoftheUnited roleindefiningAmerica’sforeignpolicy.HarryS.
Stateshehadtoinventthejob.SomeofWashington’s TrumandirectedtheMarshallPlantorebuildwar-torn
ideasaboutthepresidencyhavenotsurvived—for EuropeandorderedU.S.troopstoKoreawithoutgoing
example,todaynooneaddressesthepresidentas“Your toCongressforadeclarationofwar.Somecritics,
HighMightiness.”Buttheideathatthemembersofthe believingthatthepresident’spowerwasbecomingtoo
president’sCabinetanswertohim,thathehasfinalsay broad,spokeof“animperialpresidency.”Iftherewas
overthepolicydecisionsofhisadministration, animperialpresidency,muchofthesteamwentoutof
originatedwithGeorgeWashington.Ascommanderin itinthe1970s,thedecadeoftheWatergatescandaland
chiefoftheContinentalArmyduringtheAmerican resignationofRichardM.Nixon,America’sdefeatin
Revolutionheoftenturnedtohisofficersforadvice,but Vietnam,andthehumiliatinghostagecrisisinIran.
Washingtonregardedtheultimatedecision-making Thepoweroftheofficeisnottheonlyaspectofthe
authorityashisalone.Washington’smodelensuredthat Americanpresidencythathasevolvedovertime.One
thepresidentoftheUnitedStateswouldnotbea ofthefirstchangeswashowthevicepresidentwas
figurehead,butsomeonewithrealpoliticalpower. selected.Initiallythecandidatewhoreceivedthe
Foreignobserverswondered,ifWashingtonwasnot greatestnumberofelectoralvotesbecamepresident,
aking,wouldhebeadictatorandremainpresidentfor andtherunner-upbecamevicepresident.Thiswasan
life?Onceagainourfirstpresidentsetthepatternfor ideadoomedtofailure,asthecountrywitnessedwhen
allthepresidentswhowouldfollowhim:whenhistwo PresidentJohnAdamswassaddledwithhispolitical
termswereup,heleftofficeandwenthometoMount enemy,ThomasJefferson,ashisvicepresident.
Vernon.Thetwo-termprecedenthasbeenhonoredby Congresssettledthematterin1803whenitpassedthe
everypresidentexceptFranklinD.Roosevelt,who TwelfthAmendmenttotheU.S.Constitution,which
brokewithtraditionandservedforfourterms.(After calledforthevicepresidenttobeelectedinhisown
hisdeathin1945,Congresspassedalawlimitingthe right.ThefirstvicepresidenttobeelectedwasGeorge
presidenttotwoterms.) Clintonin1804.
Overtheyearsotherpresidentslearnedhowto Justasnooneknewwhattocallthepresident,no
increasethepoweroftheiroffice.AndrewJackson oneknewwhattocallhiswife,either.Martha
usedhispoliticalcapitalasawarheroanda“man Washingtonwasgenerallyaddressedas“Lady
ofthepeople”toinfluencelegislationonCapitolHill. Washington,”asifshewereanaristocrat.In1863Mary
ThecrisisoftheCivilWarledAbrahamLincolnto ToddLincolnwasreferredtoas“theFirstLadyinthe
exercisepowerinwaysearlierpresidentscouldonly Land,”butthetitledidnotcatchonuntilLucyWebb
dreamof.Inadditiontoactingascommanderin HayesmovedintotheWhiteHousein1877;shewas
chief,hesuspendedtherightofhabeascorpus, verypopular,andthetitle“FirstLady”wasasmucha
arrestinganyonewhowassuspectedofdisloyaltyto tokenofaffectionasitwasofrespect.
theUnion,andevenignoredthedecisionsofthe Finally,everyonewantstoknowaboutthe
SupremeCourtwhenitsuitedhim.Theodore president’ssalary.GeorgeWashingtonwaspaid$25,000
Rooseveltdeclaredthatthepresidencywasa“bully ayear;hisvicepresident,JohnAdams,received$5,000.
pulpit”fromwhichhecouldspeakdirectlytothe Overtheyearstheamountpaidtothepresident
Americanpeopleandpersuadethemtosupporthis steadilyincreased:$50,000in1873;$75,000in1909;
programs.AndRoosevelt’sprogramswereambitious: $100,000in1949;and$200,000in1969.Inaddition,
heinsistedonnationalstandardsforfoodanddrugs from1949through1994boththepresidentandvice
soldtotheAmericanpublic;hebrokeupbig presidenthadexpenseaccounts.Beginningin2001the
corporatemonopoliesknownas“trusts”becausethey president’ssalarywasraisedto$400,000,andin2005
stymiedcompetition;andheconvincedCongressto thevicepresident’ssalarywas$208,100.
OFFICE OF THE PRESIDENT
ThefoundersoftheUnitedStatesoriginallyintendedthe The president exercises far-reaching powers in the
presidency to be a narrowly restricted office. Newly conductofforeign policy.Inmost casesheactsthrough
independent of Great Britain, they distrusted executive the secretary of state and the Department of State. The
authority because of their experience with British King president negotiates treaties, mostly through
George III and his governors in theAmerican Colonies. subordinates.Thesearesubjecttoconfirmationbyatwo-
Yetfromthestart,theofficeofthepresident—asdefined thirds vote in the Senate. He nominates ambassadors,
through the practice of George Washington and his ministers, and consuls to represent the United States
successors—was vested with great authority. Today, the abroad.Hetakestheleadinrecognizingnewregimesor
president of the United States is arguably the most withholdingofficialrecognition.
powerfulelectedofficialintheworld. Closely related to his foreign policy authority is the
AlthoughWashingtonandfuturepresidentswouldput president’s role as commander in chief of all the armed
theirownstampontheoffice,theyallworkedwithinthe forces.HeappointsallcommissionedofficersoftheArmy,
basic framework laid out during the Constitutional Navy, Air Force, and Marines. During wartime he may
Convention in 1787. The delegates had sharp becomeinvolvedinplanningstrategy.
disagreements on the nature of the office. Properfunctioningofthegovernmentdepends
Should there be one president or three? in great measure on the president’s relations
Should he serve for life or for a limited withCongress.Itishisresponsibilitytokeep
term? Was he eligible for reelection? Congress informed of the need for new
Should he be elected by the people, by legislation.Hemustalsosubmitanannual
the governors of the states, or by budgetforallgovernmentexpenditures.
Congress? The departments and agencies are
The outcome of the debates was required to send Congress periodic
Article II of the Constitution, outlining reports of their activities, and members
the office of the president. The of departments and agencies are often
presidency would consist of one required to testify before Congressional
individual holding office for four years but committeesonmattersofpendinglegislation
eligible for reelection. To be eligible for the orotherissues.
presidency a person must be a native-born citizen, In times of war or other national crisis, Congress
mustbeatleast35yearsofage,andmusthavelivedin usually grants the president emergency powers. These
theUnitedStatesforatleast14years. powers include the authority to issue orders regulating
Based on the example set by George Washington, mostphasesofnationallifeandthewareffort,toorganize
successive presidents did not seek more than a second special agencies of government, and to make
term until Franklin D. Roosevelt ran for office and was appointmentswithoutconfirmation.
elected four times, beginning in 1932. The 22nd In normal times, as well as during emergencies,
Amendment, ratified in 1951, limits presidents to two Congressmaypasslawsestablishingapolicybutleaving
termsofoffice. thedetailstobeworkedoutbytheexecutiveoffice.The
The Constitution gives many specific powers to the presidentthenpublishesanexecutiveorderthathasthe
president. Other powers have accrued to the office forceoflaw.Thepresidenthasthepowertoapproveor
throughlawspassedbyCongress,throughinterpretations reject (veto) bills passed by Congress, though Congress
oflawsbythecourts,andthroughthepresident’sposition can override the president’s veto by summoning a two-
asleaderofhisparty. thirdsmajorityinfavorofthemeasure.
Thepresident’schiefdutyistomakesurethatthelaws Theonlyofficialdutyofthevicepresidentistopreside
arefaithfullyexecuted,andthisdutyisperformedthrough over the Senate, though he does not take part in its
asystemofexecutiveagenciesthatincludesCabinet-level deliberations.Hecastsadecidingvoteincaseofatie.In
departments. Presidents appoint all Cabinet heads and thepresident’sabsencehepresidesovermeetingsofthe
mostotherhigh-rankingofficialsoftheexecutivebranchof Cabinet. Article II of the Constitution provides for the
thefederalgovernment.Theyalsonominatealljudgesof successionofthevicepresidenttothepresidencyincase
the federal judiciary, including the members of the ofthedeath,resignation,orremovalofthepresident.The
Supreme Court. Their appointments to executive and 25thAmendment,ratifiedin1967,provides thathealso
judicialpostsmustbeapprovedbyamajorityoftheSenate, serve as acting president if the president is temporarily
theupperhouseofCongress. incapacitated.
GEORGE WASHINGTON
ofGeorgeWashington(1800).Inperhapsthemostfamous
ofthesestories,Georgechopsdownacherrytreewitha
hatchetandlateradmitsittohisfather,statingthathe
cannottellalie.Todaythestoriesarethoughttobe
fictionratherthanfact.
Afterhisfather’sdeathin1743,Georgelivedwithhis
halfbrotherAugustineatWakefieldandattendedHenry
William’sschool,oneofthebestschoolsinVirginia.By
age15Georgewasskilledinmathematicsand
mapmakingandhaddevelopedaninterestinsurveying.
In1748Georgewenttolivewithhisotherhalfbrother,
Lawrence,atanestateonthePotomacRivernamed
MountVernon.Therehemetawealthylandownerwho
hiredhimtohelpsurveyhisholdingsinVirginia.
Georgeexcelledathisnewprofession.InJuly1749he
wasappointedsurveyorofCulpeperCounty,hisfirst
publicoffice.WhenLawrencediedin1752,Washington
inheritedMountVernon,thusbecomingalandowner.
FrenchandIndianWar
Inspiredbyhisbrother’sexperiencesintheBritishNavy,
Washingtonpursuedamilitarycareer.Hewasmadea
lieutenantcolonelin1754,astensionsrosebetweenthe
BritishandtheFrenchovercontroloftheOhioRiver
valley.Washingtonwassentwithnearly200troopstotake
possessionofFortDuquesne,atthesiteofpresent-day
TheGrangerCollection,NewYork Pittsburgh,Pa.,buthefoundthattheFrenchhadclaimed
1stPresidentoftheUnitedStates
itfirst.WashingtonbuiltFortNecessitynearby.From
(1732–99;president1789–97)
there,histroopsandtheirNativeAmericanallies
VicePresident:JohnAdams(1735–1826)
ambushedaFrenchscoutingparty,killingthecommander
andnineothers.TheFrenchandIndianWarhadbegun.
FirstLadyMarthaWashington(1731–1802)
RememberedastheFatherofHisCountry,George
MarthaWashingtonsetmanyofthe
WashingtonstandsaloneinAmericanhistory.Hewas
standardsfortheproperbehavior
commanderinchiefoftheContinentalArmyduringthe
andtreatmentofthepresident’s
AmericanRevolution,chairmanoftheconventionthat
wife.BornMarthaDandridge,
wrotetheU.S.Constitution,andthefirstpresidentofthe shegrewupamongthewealthy
UnitedStates.Heledthepeoplewhotransformedthe plantationfamiliesofeastern
UnitedStatesfromaBritishcolonyintoaself-governing Virginia.Hereducation,
nation.Hisidealsoflibertyanddemocracyseta traditionalforyoungwomenof
standardforfuturepresidentsandfortheentirecountry. herclassandtime,emphasized
domesticskillsandthearts.Atage18
EarlyLife shemarriedDanielParkeCustis,anheir
toaneighboringplantation.Hisdeathin1757made
TheeldestchildofAugustineandMaryBall
herwealthy.TwoyearslatershemarriedGeorge
Washington,GeorgeWashingtonwasbornonFeb.22,
WashingtonandmovedwithherchildrentoMount
1732,ontheWakefieldplantationinWestmoreland Vernon,whereshebecameknownforher
County,Va.Hisfatherwasaprosperouslandownerwho graciousnessandhospitality.Bynatureaprivate
managedfarms,businesses,andmines.Laterthefamily person,Marthareluctantlyassumedapublicrole
movedtoFerryFarmontheRappahannockRiver, afterGeorgebecamepresident.Indoingso,she
oppositeFredericksburg,Va.FerryFarmwasthesetting contributedtotheeventualstrengthandinfluenceof
ofGeorge’sboyhoodadventuresasdescribedbyMason thepositionoffirstlady.
LockeWeemsinhisbookTheLifeandMemorableActions
StockMontage/GettyImages
WASHINGTON 3
GeorgeWashingtonTimeline
Washington
beginshis Washington Federaltroops Washington
militarycareer becomesthe suppressthe diesat
intheFrench GreatBritain firstU.S. Whiskey Mount
andIndianWar. surrenders. president. Rebellion. Vernon.
1732 1754 1775 1781 1787 1789 1793 1794 1797 1799
Washingtonis Washington Washington Washington Washington
bornin leadsthe headsthe issuesthe retiresto
Westmoreland Continental Constitutional Proclamation MountVernon.
County,Va. Armyintothe Convention. ofNeutrality.
American
Revolution.
Washingtonwaspromotedtocolonelandgiven
EntryintoPolitics
commandofasmallarmyofVirginiaandNorth
CarolinatroopsandNativeAmericanallies.InJuly1754 OnJan.6,1759,Washingtonmarriedayoungwidow,
Washington’stroopsattackedtheFrenchforcesatFort MarthaDandridgeCustis.Marthahadtwochildren
Duquesne,buttheFrenchandtheirNativeAmerican fromherpreviousmarriage—asonnamedJohnanda
alliesoutnumberedthemandforcedWashingtonto daughter,Martha,whowascalledPatsy.Fromthetime
surrender.InFebruary1755Washingtonwassentto ofhismarriage,WashingtonsupervisedbothMount
serveasaidetoBritishMaj.Gen.EdwardBraddockin VernonandthelargeCustisestate,thusbecomingone
anotheroffensiveagainstFortDuquesne.OnJuly9, ofthewealthiestandmostindustriouslandownersin
1755,FrenchforcesambushedanddefeatedBraddock’s Virginia.Inadditiontooverseeingthefarming,
forces,andBraddockwaskilledinthebattle. planting,andindustryonhisestates,Washington
Washingtonassembledtheremainingtroopsandled continuedtoserveintheVirginiaHouseofBurgesses.
thembacktoVirginia. Washington’shappylifewasinterruptedby
InAugust1755Washingtonwasappointed deterioratingrelationsbetweenGreatBritainandthe
commanderofallVirginia’stroops.In1758he colonies.AftertheFrenchandIndianWarendedin1763,
accompaniedBritishGen.JohnForbesandfinally Britainfacedaheavydebtaswellascontinuedmilitary
defeatedtheFrenchatFortDuquesne,whichwas coststoprotectthelanditacquiredduringthewar.As
burnedtothegroundbytheretreatingFrenchtroops. theBritishgovernmentimposednewtaxestogenerate
Washingtonthenresignedfromthearmywiththe revenuefromthecolonies,thecolonistsprotested.Some
honoraryrankofbrigadiergeneral.Whileservingin demandedindependenceatonce.
thefinalcampaignagainstFortDuquesne,Washington AloyalBritishsubject,Washingtonwasnotyetin
waselectedtotheVirginiaHouseofBurgesses. favorofseparationfromGreatBritain.However,he
GeneralGeorgeWashingtonandthemarquis
deLafayettesurveythetroopscampedat
ValleyForge,Pa.,duringtheharshwinterof
1777–78.
TheGrangerCollection