russian old believers in alaska

259 Pages·2015·5.64 MB·English

RUSSIAN OLD BELIEVERS IN ALASKA: LINGUISTIC AND CULTURAL
CONTINUITY OF TRADITIONALIST REFUGEES
_______________________________________
A Dissertation
presented to
the Faculty of the Graduate School
at the University of Missouri
_______________________________________________________
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
_____________________________________________________
by
APRIL R. BASS
Dr. Todd VanPool, Dissertation Supervisor
DECEMBER 2015
© Copyright by April Bass 2015
All Rights Reserved
The undersigned, appointed by the dean of the Graduate School, have examined the
dissertation entitled

RUSSIAN OLD BELIEVERS IN ALASKA: LINGUISTIC AND CULTURAL
CONTINUITY OF TRADITIONALIST REFUGEES

presented by April Bass,
a candidate for the degree of doctor of philosophy,
and hereby certify that, in their opinion, it is worthy of acceptance.
Professor Todd VanPool
Professor Christine VanPool
Professor Mary Shenk
Professor Nicole Monnier
Without the love, support, understanding, commiseration, jokes, and patience of
family and friends I couldn’t have made it through many struggles – certainly not
finishing this damn thing. My boys really made this happen, though.
Everett, you gave me the stress necklace you made in school last night just to
make me feel better. You even taught me how to play with it when I’m feeling extra
stressed and checked in with me this morning to see if my stress level had reduced! You
are such an incredible boy – you always amaze me. Thank you so much, Everett, for
being so thoughtful and patient while I finished this dissertation. Without your help, I
wouldn’t have been able to finish writing. I know we’ve had to put off reading your
favorite Supercat in the evenings sometimes, and I’ve been working through weekends.
But no more! Bring on Splatoon!
Kendrick, you don’t even know it yet, but you helped me write chapter seven!
After we brought you home, you and I hung out at home for a while. You were brand
new. You slept a bunch, so I snuggled you in a Mobi and stood in the kitchen and typed.
You bring healing and hope in a way you may never understand, sweet boy. You don’t
understand this writing thing, but you know when I’m gone. Don’t worry, it’s over.
My sons – together, your light fills the house. Your dancing in the kitchen and
your silliness makes my life worthwhile.
KISA, tonight is the last night you’ll have to do everything on your own. You
have propped me up (and I use that awkward word on purpose) in more ways than most
could endure, and yet you persist with unending positivity and truly unconditional love.
So many times I’ve wanted to just stop, and you have encouraged me to keep on because
you knew I would be disappointed in myself. My gratitude for you and our family
together is beyond measure.

To the people of SCAK who were so kind to me while I was visiting, I hope I have
kept my word to you of anonymity and an ethical portrayal from a researcher. Thank you
all for your hospitality. I hope we meet again.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I have been very fortunate to have been surrounded by several people without
whose influential guidance, constructive evaluation, and significant support I would not
have finished this project.
I have an absolutely exceptional advisor. I am sincerely and especially grateful to
Dr. Todd VanPool for many years of direction, encouragement, and support. Not only
have you been continually invested in my success as a graduate student, but you also took
time to give me great parenting and personal advice, and I am truly appreciative. Dr.
Christine VanPool and Dr. Todd VanPool, not only have you had a profound influence on
me as professors, but you have also shown me what mentorship means; during my years
of coursework, you inspired me, and during the most difficult time of my family’s life,
you cared for us. Both of you are dedicated to your students’ academic and personal
well-being, which will create in all of us a similar yet all too infrequent educator-mentors.
The empowering women on my committee have each been inspiring to me in
their own way. Dr. Mary Shenk, Dr. Nicole Monnier, and Dr. Christine VanPool, your
scholarship, leadership, feminism, professionalism, motherhood, and criticism have been
instrumental in my educational and personal development to this point. As I continue the
process of lifelong learning, I will remain genuinely grateful for your influence.
Finally, I would like to express my sincere appreciation for the financial support
of the University of Missouri College of Arts and Sciences Alumni Grant that allowed me
to go into the field.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................ ii
LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................v
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ vii
ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... ix
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................1
Goals of the Study
2. HISTORY OF THE OLD BELIEVERS .................................................................10
Theological Basis of Old Belief
Social Organization of the Old Believers
3. HISTORY OF THE OLD BELIEVERS IN SOUTH-CENTRAL ALASKA ........39
Migration from Russia to the United States
Acculturative Pressures in Oregon and Changes to Social Organization Patterns
4. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND ........................................................................65
Cultural and linguistic perspectives
Consideration of religious and immigration issues
5. METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................107
Procedures and metrics
6. ANALYSIS ...........................................................................................................121
Presentation of primary research questions and hypotheses
Supporting analysis of quantitative and qualitative data

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7. DISCUSSION .......................................................................................................175
Implications of hypothesis testing results
Speculation of future trends
8. CONCLUSION .....................................................................................................200
Broader anthropological implications
Avenues of future research
APPENDIX
A. QUESTIONNAIRE ..............................................................................................218
B. INTERVIEW QUESTIONS .................................................................................231
BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................233
VITA ................................................................................................................................245
iv
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
2.1. Icon of Jesus, reformed style .................................................................................17
2.2. Traditional Theotokos ............................................................................................17
2.3. Reformed Theotokos ..............................................................................................17
2.4. Depiction of dvoeperstie ........................................................................................19
2.5. Depiction of troeperstie .........................................................................................20
2.6. Icon of Christ, showing dvoeperstie ......................................................................22
2.7. Holy fathers with beards and short hair .................................................................22
2.8. Holy fathers with short hair and beards .................................................................22
2.9. Forcible shaving at court ........................................................................................26
2.10. Diagram of Raskol’niki sects .................................................................................36
3.1. Migration of SCAK OBs .......................................................................................42
3.2. OB family in the 1950s .........................................................................................45
3.3. OB girls occupying their time ...............................................................................45
3.4. Woodburn OB family............................................................................................46
3.5. OB mother and children gardening .......................................................................50
3.6. SCAK men in traditional dress ..............................................................................54
3.7. SCAK family in traditional dress ..........................................................................54
3.8. “Keep Out” ...........................................................................................................55
3.9. SCAK woman in the garden ....................................................................................56
3.10. OCS lessons ...........................................................................................................57
3.11. SCAK boy in t-shirt ................................................................................................58
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3.12. SCAK men illustrating bicultural dress ..................................................................59
4.1. Three processes of cultural group selection ...........................................................74
4.2. Recursivity of behavior in cultural evolution ........................................................75
4.3. Nested sub-group self-policing ..............................................................................79
4.4. Determining value of cultural and surrounding societies ......................................83
4.5. Acculturative strategies ..........................................................................................86
5.1. Example of 5-point Likert scale questionnaire item ............................................113
5.2. Occupancy map of the SCAK village ...................................................................115
5.3. Participation map of the SCAK village ................................................................118
6.1. Relative pattern of responses by generation ........................................................125
6.2. Generation of immigration versus genealogical generation ................................134
6.3. Krasnij ugol ..........................................................................................................153
6.4. Floorplan #1 of a Villager resident ......................................................................153
6.5. Floorplan #2 of a Villager resident ......................................................................154
6.6. Floorplan #3 of a Villager resident ......................................................................154
6.7. Floorplan of a 3rd Villager resident living within the Village boundaries ...........155
6.8. OB housing occupancy by percentage .................................................................169
6.9. Student enrollment in the SCAK school ...............................................................170
6.10. Culmination of SCAK Village OB population data estimates .............................171
7.1. Initial cultural transmission pattern and resulting behavior patterns of the SCAK
OBS ......................................................................................................................178
7.2. Initial modification of cultural transmission pattern and resulting behaviors .....182
7.3. Sustained transmission pattern with modified resulting behavior .......................185
7.4. Accumulation of processes – transmission patterns, acculturative strategies, and
behaviors ..............................................................................................................188
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
4.1. Operationalization of religious constraints ............................................................95
5.1. Operationalization of primary variables ..............................................................109
5.2. Household-level interaction .................................................................................116
6.1. Comfort level with Russian usage .......................................................................124
6.2. Number of responses by generation, linguistic component, and level of comfort
with Russian .........................................................................................................124
6.3. Comfort level with English usage ........................................................................126
6.4. Number of responses by generation, linguistic component, and level of comfort
with English .........................................................................................................127
6.5. Frequency of Russian usage.................................................................................129
6.6. Number of responses by generation, linguistic component, and frequency of
Russian .................................................................................................................129
6.7. Frequency of English usage .................................................................................131
6.8. Number of responses by generation, linguistic component, and frequency of
English .................................................................................................................131
6.9. Comfort level with Russian .................................................................................136
6.10. Comfort level with English ..................................................................................136
6.11. Frequency of Russian usage.................................................................................137
6.12. Frequency of English usage .................................................................................139
6.13. Comfort level with Russian .................................................................................141
6.14. Comfort level with English ..................................................................................143
6.15. Frequency of Russian usage.................................................................................144
6.16. Frequency of English usage .................................................................................144
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