prospective memory in adults with developmental dyslexia adam p. zięcik

296 Pages·2015·1.92 MB·English

by  Adam Ziecik

PROSPECTIVE MEMORY IN ADULTS WITH
DEVELOPMENTAL DYSLEXIA

ADAM P. ZIĘCIK

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of London
South Bank University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

October 2014

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Dedicated to my wife Marta and my son Nikodem

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Acknowledgements

I would like to take this opportunity to thank God for enabling me to complete this work. I am
also very grateful for the support I have received from my wife, parents, family and friends.
Also, I would like to mention here the financial support I have received from my parents
(Krystyna and Jerzy Ziecik) without which accomplishing this task would not be possible. I
would like to also thank Janette Jacobs (fellow PhD student) who supported me in many ways.
She was my guardian angel at London South Bank University from day one. Overall, I am very
grateful to my director of studies Dr James Smith-Spark and my second supervisor Dr
Christopher Sterling, without whose guidance, knowledge, encouragement and support this
research project would not have been possible.

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Abstract

While short-term and working memory deficits in individuals with dyslexia are well
documented, the effects of dyslexia on prospective memory (PM) have been neglected. A range
of PM measures were administered to different samples of university students with and without
dyslexia (typically N = 50, 25 per group, matched for age and IQ, and differing on reading and
spelling measures). Questionnaire data indicated that individuals with dyslexia perceived
themselves as significantly worse on everyday PM activities than non-dyslexics. These data
were corroborated by ratings taken from close friends/relatives of the participants. Naturalistic
data revealed that adults with dyslexia performed more poorly on a time-based task involving a
delay of 40 minutes and 24 hours and an event-based PM task involving a one week delay.
There were no event-based PM deficits in dyslexia in the experimental tasks. However, adults
with dyslexia were significantly worse at time-based tasks. Difficulties with PM would,
therefore, seem to be evident in adults with dyslexia and tend to manifest themselves in time-
based PM tasks. This interpretation is consistent with executive functioning problems associated
with dyslexia and theories that take a broader view of dyslexia than phonological processing
alone.

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Table of Contents

Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................... 3
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................ 4
Table of Contents ......................................................................................................................... 5
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... 9
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................ 11

Chapter 1: Prospective memory ................................................................................................. 12
1.1. Definition of prospective memory ............................................................................. 12
1.2. Event-based vs. time-based prospective memory ....................................................... 12
1.3. Paradigms used for investigation of prospective memory ........................................... 15
1.3.1. Experimental paradigms ........................................................................................... 15
1.3.2. Naturalistic paradigms .............................................................................................. 16
1.4. Theories of prospective memory ............................................................................... 18
1.4.1. Prospective memory considered from the perspective of memory-based models ..... 19
1.4.2. The monitoring theory of prospective memory......................................................... 20
1.4.3. Spontaneous retrieval theory .................................................................................... 26
1.4.4. Multiprocess theory of prospective memory ............................................................. 31
1.5. Involvement of executive functions in prospective memory ........................................ 40
1.5.1. Executive functioning ............................................................................................... 40
1.5.2. Working memory...................................................................................................... 45
1.5.3. Theory of action control including the supervisory attentional system ..................... 48
1.5.4. Inhibition, switching and prospective memory ......................................................... 50
1.6. Summary ................................................................................................................ 55

Chapter 2: Dyslexia .................................................................................................................... 57
2.1. Definition ............................................................................................................... 57
2.2. Deficits and theories ................................................................................................ 58
2.2.1. Phonological deficits ................................................................................................ 58
2.2.2. Naming speed deficit ................................................................................................ 61
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2.2.3. Wider cognitive impairments and theories ............................................................... 62
2.3. Summary ................................................................................................................ 85

Chapter 3: Synthesis of prospective memory and dyslexia literature (rationale for prospective
memory deficits in dyslexia) ......................................................................................... 86
3.1. Event-based prospective memory and dyslexia .......................................................... 86
3.1.1. Spontaneous retrieval vs. monitoring theories .......................................................... 86
3.1.2. Event-based prospective memory, executive functioning, and dyslexia ................... 90
3.2.Executive functioning, prospective memory and dyslexia ............................................ 91
3.2.1. Supervisory attentional system, working memory link to prospective memory and
dyslexia .................................................................................................................... 91
3.2.2. Inhibition, switching involvement in prospective memory and its relevance to
dyslexia .................................................................................................................... 92
3.2.3. Processing speed, prospective memory and dyslexia................................................ 94
3.3.Time-based prospective memory and dyslexia ............................................................ 95
3.4. Summary ................................................................................................................ 97

Chapter 4: Self-report measures of PM ...................................................................................... 99
4.1. Study 1: The Prospective and Retrospective Memory Questionnaire (PRMQ; Smith,
Maylor, Della Sala & Logie, 2003) ....................................................................... 99
4.1.1. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 99
4.1.2 Method .................................................................................................................... 105
4.2. Study 2: The Prospective Memory Questionnaire (PMQ; Hannon, Adams, Harrington,
Fries-Dias & Gibson, 1995) ................................................................................ 117
4.2.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................ 117
4.2.2. Method ................................................................................................................... 119
4.2.3. Results .................................................................................................................... 122
4.2.4. Discussion .............................................................................................................. 123
4.3. Summary .............................................................................................................. 126

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Chapter 5: Performance on a clinical measure of prospective memory .................................... 127
5.1. Study 3: Memory for Intentions Screening Test (MIST) ........................................... 127
5.1.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................ 127
5.1.2. Method ................................................................................................................... 129
5.1.3. Results .................................................................................................................... 132
5.1.4. Discussion .............................................................................................................. 135
5.1.5. Summary ................................................................................................................ 139

Chapter 6: Event-based prospective memory ........................................................................... 140
6.1. Experimental investigations of cue focality ............................................................. 140
6.1.1. Study 4: Focal prospective memory target.............................................................. 143
6.1.2. Study 5: Non-focal prospective memory target ...................................................... 159
6.1.3. General discussion (cue focality) ............................................................................ 169
6.2. Naturalistic and semi-naturalistic measures of event-based prospective memory ........ 172
6.2.1. Study 6: Semi-naturalistic design (40 minutes time interval) ................................. 174
6.2.2. Study 7: Naturalistic design (one week time interval) ............................................ 177
6.2.3. General discussion (naturalistic measures) ............................................................. 184
6.3. Summary .............................................................................................................. 185

Chapter 7: Time-based prospective memory ............................................................................ 187
7.1. Study 8: Experimental manipulation of cognitive load .............................................. 187
7.1.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................ 187
7.1.2. Method ................................................................................................................... 195
7.1.3. Results .................................................................................................................... 204
7.1.4. Discussion .............................................................................................................. 213
7.2. Naturalistic and semi-naturalistic measures of time-based prospective memory.......... 216
7.2.1. Study 9: Semi-naturalistic task involving a delay of 40 minutes ............................ 219
7.2.2. Study 10: Naturalistic task involving a one week delay .......................................... 223
7.3. Summary .............................................................................................................. 228
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Chapter 8: Implications for theory including direction for future research, practical
recommendations and a conclusion ............................................................................. 229
8.1. Summary of main findings ..................................................................................... 229
8.2. Implications for theory ........................................................................................... 231
8.2.1. Implications for event-based prospective memory ................................................. 231
8.2.2. Implications for time-based prospective memory ................................................... 234
8.2.3. Implications for dyslexia ........................................................................................ 236
8.3. Future research direction ........................................................................................ 244
8.4. The bigger picture: Implications for everyday life in adults with dyslexia .................. 250
8.5. Overall conclusion ................................................................................................. 252

References ................................................................................................................................ 254
Appendices: ............................................................................................................................. 282
Appendix 1: Stimuli list for focal (Study 4) and non-focal (Study 5) experiments ............. 282
Appendix 2: Stimuli Matching using one-way ANOVA .................................................. 283
Appendix 3: Trimmed data analysis - event-based: Focal design ..................................... 284
3.1. Data trimming procedure ........................................................................................... 284
3.2. Trimmed accuracy and RT data ................................................................................. 284
Appendix 4: Trimmed data analysis - event-based Non-focal experiment ......................... 286
4.1. Data trimming procedure ........................................................................................... 286
4.2. Trimmed accuracy and RT data ................................................................................. 286
Appendix 5: Stimuli used as PM targets in non-focal experiment .................................... 287
Appendix 6: Juxtaposition of tables displaying means from focal and non-focal experiments
based on non-trimmed data................................................................................. 288
Appendix 7: Stimuli list used in Time-based experiments. .............................................. 289
Appendix 8: Naturalistic Study Instructions (event-based) .............................................. 290
Appendix 9: Follow up email ........................................................................................ 293
Appendix 10: Naturalistic Study Instructions (time-based) .............................................. 295

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List of Tables

Table 1: Descriptive statistics for gender and age and t-tests performed on literacy screening
measures and short-form IQ. ................................................................................................... 108
Table 2: Descriptive statistics and unrelated t-tests for total PRMQ, Prospective and
Retrospective scales. ............................................................................................................... 111
Table 3: Descriptive statistics and univariate ANOVA for the eight PRMQ subscales. .................. 112
Table 4: Descriptive statistics and unrelated t-tests for total PRMQ-for-others and its
Prospective and Retrospective scales. ..................................................................................... 113
Table 5: Descriptive statistics and ANOVA for PRMQ-for-others, Prospective and
Retrospective totals as well as for the 8 subscales. .................................................................. 114
Table 6: Descriptive statistics for gender and age and t-tests on literacy screening measures and
short-form IQ. ......................................................................................................................... 120
Table 7: Descriptive statistics, follow-up univariate ANOVAs and t-test for PMQ. ....................... 123
Table 8: Descriptive statistics and follow-up univariate ANOVAs conducted on MIST
measures. ................................................................................................................................. 133
Table 9: Descriptive statistics and follow-up univariate ANOVAs conducted on PM errors. ......... 134
Table 10: Descriptive statistics for gender and age and t-tests performed on literacy screening
measures and short-form IQ. ................................................................................................... 146
Table 11: Descriptive statistics for accuracy and RT data of ongoing trials in Blocks 1 and 2 of
focal PM paradigm. ................................................................................................................. 154
Table 12: Frequency counts representing importance placed on the different tasks by dyslexics
and controls in the focal task. .................................................................................................. 155
Table 13: Descriptive statistics for the number of eye fixations and dwell times for ongoing
stimuli in Blocks 1 and 2. ........................................................................................................ 156
Table 14: Descriptive statistics for gender and age and t-tests on literacy screening measures and
short-form IQ for the non-focal experiment. ........................................................................... 162
Table 15: Descriptive statistics for accuracy and RT data of ongoing trials in Blocks 1 and 2 of
non-focal PM paradigm. .......................................................................................................... 165
Table 16: Frequency counts representing importance placed on the different tasks by dyslexics
and controls in the non-focal design. ....................................................................................... 166
Table 17: Descriptive statistics for the number of eye fixations and dwell times for ongoing
stimuli in Blocks 1 and 2 of the non-focal design. .................................................................. 167
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Table 18: Frequency counts representing participants with and without dyslexia who remember
and did not remember to perform the 40 minutes event-based PM task. ................................. 175
Table 19: Descriptive statistics for gender and age and t-tests on literacy screening measures and
short-form IQ. ......................................................................................................................... 178
Table 20: Observed frequencies representing self-reported remembering of the naturalistic PM
instruction gained through follow-up email............................................................................. 182
Table 21: Descriptive statistics for gender and age and t-tests performed on literacy screening
measures and short-form IQ. ................................................................................................... 196
Table 22: Descriptive statistics for PM accuracy data in low, high phonologically-loaded and
high visuo-spatially-loaded conditions. ................................................................................... 205
Table 24: Descriptive statistics for reaction time data from ongoing tasks of low, high
phonologically-loaded and high visuo-spatially-loaded conditions. ........................................ 206
Table 23: Descriptive statistics for accuracy of ongoing trials in low, high phonologically-based
and high visuo-spatially-based conditions. .............................................................................. 207
Table 25: Descriptive statistics for secondary ongoing tasks used in high phonologically-loaded
and high visuo-spatially-loaded conditions. ............................................................................ 209
Table 26: Descriptive statistics from the total number of time checks in low, high
phonologically-loaded and high visuo-spatially-loaded conditions. ........................................ 210
Table 31: Frequency counts representing frequency counts for the two participant groups. ........... 226
Table 32: Means and mixed measures ANOVA using accuracy and RT data. ................................ 285
Table 33: Means and mixed measures ANOVA using accuracy and RT data. ................................ 286

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