Pan-Africanism

15 Pages·2017·0.21 MB·English

genealogy
Article
Pan-Africanism: A Quest for Liberation and the
Pursuit of a United Africa
MarkMalisa1,*andPhillippaNhengeze2
1 DepartmentofEducationalResearchandAdministration,UniversityofWestFlorida,
11000UniversityPkwy,Pensacola,FL32514,USA
2 DepartmentofEconomics,AfricaUniversity,Mutare,Zimbabwe;[email protected]
* Correspondence:[email protected]
(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:3)(cid:1)(cid:4)(cid:5)(cid:6)(cid:7)(cid:8)(cid:1)
(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:5)(cid:6)(cid:7)
Received:23July2018;Accepted:7August2018;Published:14August2018
Abstract: OurpaperexaminestheplaceofPan-Africanismasaneducational,political,andcultural
movement which had a lasting impact on the on the relationship between liberation and people
of African descent, in the continent of Africa and the Diaspora. We also show its evolution,
beginning with formerly enslaved Africans in the Americas, to the colonial borders of the 1884
BerlinConference,andconcludewiththeindependencemovementsinAfrica. Forformerlyenslaved
Africans,Pan-Africanismwasanideathathelpedthemseetheircommonalitiesasvictimsofracism.
Thatis,theyrealizedthattheywereenslavedbecausetheycamefromthesamecontinentandshared
thesameracialheritage. TheyassociatedthecontinentofAfricawithfreedom. Thepartitioningof
AfricaattheBerlinConference(colonialism)createdpseudo-nationstatesoutofwhatwasinitially
seenasanundividedcontinent. Pan-AfricanismprovidedanideologyforrallyingAfricansathome
and abroad against colonialism, and the creation of colonial nation-states did not erase the idea
of a united Africa. As different African nations gained political independence, they took it upon
themselvestosupportthosecountriesfightingfortheirindependence. Thebelief,then,wasthatas
longasoneAfricannationwasnotfree,thecontinentcouldnotbeviewedasfree. Theexistenceof
nation-statesdidnotimplythenegationofPan-Africanism. Thepoliticalideasweexamineinclude
those of Marcus Garvey, W.E.B. Du Bois, Kwame Nkrumah, Maya Angelou, and Thabo Mbeki.
Pan-Africanism,asitwere,hasshapedhowmanypeopleunderstandthehistoryofAfricaandof
Africanpeople.
Keywords: Pan-Africanism;Africa;Colonialism;Globalization;Education
1. Introduction
Our paper examines the place of Pan-Africanism as an educational, political, and cultural
movementwhichhadalastingimpactontheliberationofpeopleofAfricandescent,inthecontinent
ofAfricaandtheDiaspora(Ayttey2010;West2005;Clarke2012;Fergus2010;Armah2010). Wealso
showitsevolution,beginningwithformerlyenslavedAfricansintheAmericas,tothecolonialborders
ofthe1884BerlinConference,theriseoftheindependencemovementsinAfrica(1957–1975),andthe
present. Withinthediscourseofgenealogy,wearguethatPanAfricanismshouldbeunderstoodas
aquestforAfrica’sself-understandingandself-knowledgethroughhistoricalnarrative.
In giving a somewhat chronological development of Pan Africanism, we acknowledge how
genealogy is also a narration about a people’s history and origins. Even in oral cultures, griots
preservedapeople’shistorythroughstory-telling,orbiographicalnarratives(Schulz1997). Schulzalso
notedthatitwasnotuncommonforgriotstorecasthistoricalnarrativessothat“thecurrentsituation
ispresentedastheoutcomeofaneverspecifiedpast”(Schulz1997,p. 446). Whilegriotswereattimes
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beholdentothecourt,ultimately,thebestonesowedallegiancetotruthandjustice,resistingthelure
ofpowerandmaterialrewards(Armah2000;Hale1994;Haley2002).
Itisalsoimportanttonotethatthenarrationofhistory,eveninoralcultures,wassharedbyboth
menandwomen(Hale1994). Irvine(1978)contendedthatgenealogyshouldbeconsideredaspart
of history, and in the making of history, women play an important role, especially within the Pan
AfricanMovement. ReadersfamiliarwithRootswilllikelybeawareoftheroleofgriotsinrecounting
a people’s history, their genealogy, of how they came to be in the present condition. Genealogies
generallyendwithanexaminationofthepresentcondition,basedonaremembranceofthepastand
afuturethatisyettobeborn(Fall2003;Armah2000;Williams1992).
Withinthecontextofthispaper,PanAfricanismreferstoaphilosophy(orphilosophies)which
soughttopromoteideasofaunitedAfrica. Overdifferenthistoricalperiods,thephilosophiesevolved,
butthefocusontheunityoronenessofAfricastayedconsistent. Partlybecausesomeoftheevolution
of Pan Africanism took place in universities, we also examine Pan Africanism’s development as
an intellectual movement tied to the aspirations of people of African descent in different parts of
theworld. Inadditiontobeingaphilosophicalandintellectualmovement,PanAfricanismisalso
apoliticalmovementororganizationwhosegoalwastheliberationandunityofAfrica,especially
afterslaveryandtheencounterwithmodernity(Armah1973,2000,2008,2010). WealsouseBlackand
Africaninterchangeably,forthatishowtheconceptoperatedwithinPanAfricanism.
For formerly enslaved Africans, Pan-Africanism was an idea that helped them see their
commonalities as victims of racism (Fergus 2010). That is, they realized that they were enslaved
because they came from the same continent and shared the same racial heritage. Needless to say,
the early articulations and manifestations of Pan Africanism took place outside Africa, mainly in
NorthAmericaandtheCaribbean. PanAfricanistsassociatedthecontinentofAfricawithfreedom.
ThepartitioningofAfricaattheBerlinConference(colonialism)createdpseudo-nation-statesoutof
whatwasinitiallyseenasanundividedcontinent(Armah2010;WaThiongo2009). Pan-Africanism
providedanideologyforrallyingAfricansathomeandabroadagainstcolonialism,andthecreationof
colonialnation-statesdidnoterasetheideaofaunitedAfrica.
As different African nations gained political independence, they took it upon themselves to
supportthosecountriesfightingfortheirindependence. ManyAfricancountriesdrewinspiration
fromthenationsintheCaribbean,includingCuba(Martin2011).Thebelief,then,wasthat,aslong
as one African nation was not free, the continent could not be viewed as free. The existence of
nation-statesdidnotimplythenegationofPan-Africanism. Thepoliticalideasexaminedincludethose
ofMarcusGarvey,W.E.B.DuBois,KwameNkrumah,MalcolmX,NelsonMandela,andThaboMbeki.
Pan-Africanism, asitwere, hasshapedhowmanypeopleunderstandthehistoryofAfricaandof
Africanpeople.
Pan Africanism, as it were, offered a hope that Africa will be one, united, not balkanized
by colonial powers (Soyinka-Airewele and Edozie 2010). It made it possible to give a systematic
presentation of a united Africa, an attempt at self-definition. Many scholars were cognizant of
the fact that the history of Africa did not begin with the encounter with Europeans or foreign
invaders, even though the encounter with Europeans had led to the fall of Africa (Williams 1992;
Armah2010;Emerson1962).Africankingdomsandempiresexisted(Emerson1962).Itsspiritpredated
thefirstPan-AfricanCongressmeetingof1900inLondon(Clarke2012)andtherewasanimplicit
understandingthat,priortotheencounterwithmodernity,Africawasunited.
Throughoutgenerations,PanAfricanismpromotedaconsciousnessofAfricaastheancestral
homeforBlackpeople,andadesiretoworkforitsliberation(Gebrekidan2012). Atthecorewasthe
understandingthatpeopleofAfricanheritagehadsimilarexperiences,regardlessoftheirlocationinthe
world. Amongsuchexperiencesincludedcolonialism,racialoppression,andslavery(Padmore1956;
Malcolm1992). Forasignificantpartofthe20thCentury, AddisAbabawasfrequentlyviewedas
headquartersoftheOrganizationofAfricanUnity,indicativeofthehopeofaunitedAfrica. However,
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evenbeforefirstthePan-AfricanCongressinLondon,BlackshadenvisionedtheformationofaUnited
StatesofAfrica(Gebrekidan2012).
2. DaysofSlaveryandAfter
AlthoughthewordPan-Africanismcameintopopularuseinthe1950s,therearesomewhoargue
thatthephilosophyofPanAfricanismwaspresentandmanifesteditselfnotonlyintheprotestsand
resistancetoslavery,butthedesiretoreturntoAfrica(Geiss1967;Armah2010). Formerlyenslaved
AfricanssoughttoreturntoAfrica,andevenwhenaphysicalreturnwasimpossibletheykepttheidea
ofAfricaalive(DuBois1973,1992,1995;Padmore1956). Inmanyways,enslavementdidnotremove
senseoflongingorbelongingtoawiderAfricancommunity,orevenareturntoAfrica(Lake1995;
Tsomondo1975;Padmore1956;Armah2010).
Inthe18thand19thcenturies,thereweremanyeffortstorepatriateformerlyenslavedAfricans
(Blyden1967,1996),andsomeleftfromtheUSAtoSierraLeoneandLiberia. Whilesomereturned
onavoluntarybasis,othersdidsoattheurgingofEuropeanAmericanswiththesupportoftheUS
government(Lake1995;Liebenow1973). WhileabolitionistsintheUnitedStateswerekeentoend
slavery,somewerenotenamoredofhavingBlacksliveamongthem,andencouragedthemtorelocate
toAfrica. SomewereshippedfromJamaicaandtheCaribbeantomakeitfreeandsafeforEuropeans
(Walker1976).
ManyoftheformerlyenslavedAfricansreturningtoAfricasawtheirmissionasthatofadvancing
Africa through means similar to what was happening in North America and Europe. Among the
newthingstheysoughtincludednewformsofcommerceandnewreligions,includingChristianity
(West2005).ForCrummell(1996),itwasafusionofcapitalismandChristianity,orAnglophiliathat
couldleadtoatransformationofAfrica.
The return to Africa, or the promise and premise of Pan Africanism was predicated on
avisionofatriumphantorvictoriousAfrica,onefreeofslaveryandforeigndomination.However,
theappearancesoftheabolitionofslaverydidnotleadtoasignificantemancipationofAfricans,inthe
DiasporaorinAfricaitself. Theabolitionofslaverywasfollowedbythe“dismembermentofAfricaat
the1885BerlinConference,aprocessmuchlikethebutcheringofahugeelephantforsharingamong
jubilanthunterkin”(Armah2010,p. 15). TheBerlinConferenceandthesubsequentpartitioningof
AfricalaidthefoundationforthecolonizationofAfrica. Toagreatextent,intheBerlinConference
“Europeansocietyfoundtheprincipleofresourcetheftperfectlyacceptable,indeed,inevitable... .
formalizedthisacceptanceofbrutalityasgoodgovernanceforAfrica”(Armah2010,p. 15). Africaand
AfricansbelongedtoEuropeans,andGermanyplayedacentralroleinthepartitioningofAfrica.
2.1. TheBerlinConference
ThepartitioningofAfricaattheBerlinConferencenotonlyledtothetheftofresources,butto
the creation of borders where previously there had been none, and the making of pseudo-states
administered by Europeans using European legal systems. According to Ngugi Wa Thiongo,
the “Berlin Conference of 1884 literally fragmented and reconstituted Africa into British, French,
Portuguese, German, Belgian, and Spanish Africa” (Wa Thiongo 2009, p. 3). Political, cultural,
andeconomicindependencewerelostintheprocessofcolonialism.However,insteadofavacuum,
Europe used the colonial experience to impose its cultural memory in ways that would radically
alterthecourseofAfricanhistoryandidentity,aswellasthepotentialunificationofAfrica.Withthe
partitioningofAfrica,whathadbeenpreviouslyonewhole,suddenlybecamealandmassofseveral
nationstates.
AsaresultoftheBerlinConference,GermanyhadGermanWestAfrica(Namibia)andGerman
EastAfrica(Tanzania,RwandaandBurundi)aswellasTogoandCameroon. France,ontheotherhand,
tookpossessionofovertenterritories,includingtheIvoryCoast,Senegal,Niger,Gambia,Morocco,
Gabon,AlgeriaandTunisia. ToBritainwentGhana,Nigeria,Kenya,Uganda,SouthAfrica,Egypt,
NorthernRhodesia(Zambia),Botswana,Lesotho,andSouthernRhodesia(Zimbabwe)amongothers.
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EvenPortugalcolonizedAngola,Mozambique,CapeVerde,andGuinea-Bissau(Chamberlain1999).
Delegatesfrom14EuropeancountriesconvenedanddecidedthefateofAfricaanditspeople.
ThemasqueradeofEuropeanrationalityandthesuperiorityoftheEuropeanpoliticalsystem
lasteduntiltheemergenceofHitlerandhisrisetopowerandsubsequentNazism.Nazismrevealedthe
shortcomingsormoralbankruptcyofEuropeanphilosophiesandideologies,especiallywithregardto
theHolocaust(Armah2010;Adorno2005). FollowingthedefeatofGermany,otherEuropeancountries
punishedGermanybydispossessingitofitsAfricancolonies. Coloniesthathadformerlybelongedto
Germanyweregivenasspoilstonewconquerors.
InadditiontodividingAfricaamongthemselves,EuropeannationsalsodividedAfricansfrom
each other. This was mostly evident with the making of colonial borders. However, the colonial
borders also quickly became religious and cultural borders, as colonialism was quickly followed
bytheimpositionofdifferentreligioustraditions,includingvariationsofChristianity(Armah2010;
WaThiongo2009). AbyproductofthedivisionofAfricawasthecreationintheEuropeanimaginary,
culture, and scholarship, of Egypt and parts of North Africa as separate from the rest of Africa,
especially what is now called Africa South of the Sahara (Armah 2010; Bentahar 2011). European
cartographydefinedAfrica’sgeographicalandpoliticalidentity. TheBerlinConference,inmanyways,
createdpseudo-nationstatesbeholdentocolonialpowers(Emerson1962). Itformedthefoundation
forthecontinueddestructionofAfricanhistory,culture,andunity.
However, evenfromEuropeandNorthAmerica, aswellastheCaribbean, peopleofAfrican
descentstroveformaintainingtheunityofAfrica. Amongthemanyplatformsthroughwhichthis
wasdoneincludedthePanAfricanCongresses.
2.2. PanAfricanCongresses
NotwithstandingtheconcertedeffortbyEuropeansatdisunitingAfricaasaresultoftheBerlin
Conference,leadingactivistsandintellectualsintheDiasporasoughtwaysforadvocatingfortheunity
ofAfricaandpeopleofAfricandescent. ThoseintheDiasporaorganizedconferencesandcongresses
to deliberate on the present and future of Africa (Mboukou 1983; Lake 1995). Pan Africanism can
be understood as a practical and philosophical approach to a unity of people of African heritage,
especiallythoseinNorthAmerica,theCaribbean,Europe,andAfrica. ThePanAfricanCongresses,
especiallythoseduringthetimeofDuBoisandPadmore,becameplacesfordefiningthegoalsand
visionforAfrica(Geiss1967).
TheFirstPanAfricanCongresswasheldinLondonin1900(Lake1995). Itwasorganizedby
WilliamsofTrinidadandexplored,amongotherthings,theindependenceofAfrica,andtherightsof
BlackpeopleintheDiaspora. Inmanyways,PanAfricanismmadeitpossibletoviewthefutureof
Africathroughadifferentlens. Agenerationalandideologicalshiftwasapparent,especiallywhen
comparedwiththoseofthedaysimmediatelyafterslavery. Christianitywasnolongerviewedas
essentialtotheideologicalandmaterialrevivalofAfrica(West2005).
TheSecondPanAfricanCongresstookplacein1919,andwasagainoverwhelminglydominated
byBlacksfromtheDiaspora. AswiththeFirstCongress,italsotookplaceinEurope,andamongthose
presentincludedW.E.B.DuBois(Mboukou1983). DuBoisplayedaleadingroleinmanyofthePan
AfricanCongresses(Gibrill2014);whateventuallycameintoplaywasthequestionofwhowastolead
AfricaoutofEuropeandomination,andinwhatpoliticalandideologicaldirection.
During this period, Marcus Garvey and W.E.B. Du Bois played a leading role in shaping the
directionorpathtowardthefutureofAfrica. ForGarvey,itwasimportantforAfricanstothinkin
termsofracefirst(Martin1986),andinthiscase,theBlackrace. DuBoishadalreadywrittenand
publishedonthecontributionsofBlackpeopleinworldhistoryinwaysthatchallengedEuropean
perceptionsanddepictionsofAfrica(DuBois1986).ThefissuresinEuropeanideologiesandcapitalism
hadmadeitpossibleforBlacksintheDiasporatostudyMarxismandSocialism. TheriseoftheSoviet
Union,andtheacceptanceofBlacksintheCommunistInternationalpersuadedPanAfricaniststo
exploreSocialismascentraltotheunificationandfutureofAfrica(Padmore1956;Solomon1998).
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However,withinarelativelyshorttime,somePanAfricanistsbegantorealizetheshortcomings
ofsocialism,andbrokewiththeCommunistInternational(Mboukou1983;Campbell1995). Atthe
early stages of his career, the younger Padmare, for example, viewed socialism and the potential
solidaritybetweenworkersoftheworldassomethingthatcouldsolvetheraceproblem. Inother
words,forawhilehesawtheproblemasoneofeconomics,whileDuBois,MarcusGarvey,andothers
viewedraceascentral. By1933,however,PadmorebegantoseethelimitationsofCommunismwithin
thestruggleforAfricanfreedom. HehadahugeinfluenceonotherPanAfricanists,includingKwame
Nkrumah(Murapa1972).
MoststudentsofPanAfricanismwouldrarelyquestionthededicationthatthoseintheDiaspora
hadforthecauseofAfrica. PartlybecauseoftheproximitytoEuropeansaswellastheirexperiences
withEuropeanandNorthAmericaneducation,thoseassembledattheFirstandSecondPanAfrican
CongressesenvisagedthemselvesplayingaleadershiproleinAfrica. EvenyoungerDuBoissawthe
educatedBlacksasessentialtoamissionofcivilizingAfrica(Issacs1960).Forasignificantamountof
time,theearlyPanAfricanistssawtheliberationofAfricathroughanAnglo-Americanworldview,
but this is partly because they had been educated in that environment. It could be argued that
“they sought to remake Africa and Africans, at home and abroad, in the image of the emerging
bourgeoisNorthAtlanticsocieties”(West2005,p.88).However,overtime,manyofthePanAfricanists
foundahomeinAfrica,andendedupadvisingthepresidentsofnewlyindependentAfricancountries.
By the time of the Fifth Pan African Congress (held in 1945), the hope that the Anglo
American model could provide a transformative and emancipatory framework for Africa was
being slowly abandoned. While previous congresses had advocated for a gradual emancipation
for Africans, the Fifth Pan African Congress stressed the necessity of ending colonialism
(Padmore1956). Theideologicalandpoliticalrationalforgainingpoliticalindependencehadbeen
laid,andrepresentativesfromAfricancountriesbeganactivelyparticipatingincongresses.
WiththeadventandconsolidationofpoliticalindependenceinAfrica,thesubsequentPanAfrican
CongresseswereheldinAfrica,shiftingthebalancetoAfrica. ThecreationoftheOrganizationof
AfricanUnity(OAU)technicallymademanyAfricanheadsofStateambassadorsto/ofPanAfricanism.
ItwaswithinthisframeworkthatNkrumahmadeGhana’sresourcesavailabletoAfricancountries
fightingforpoliticalindependence(Ahlman2010,2011). WhentheOAUmetin1964,MalcolmXused
theopportunitytomakeexplicittheglobaldilemmafacedbyBlackpeople.
3. PoliticalandCulturalLiberation
SomeAfricanstatesgainedpoliticalindependencethroughpeacefultransitionsofpower,when
formercolonialmastershandedoverpowertoAfricans. Ghanawasthefirstin1957,andSouthAfrica
wasthelastin1994. Peacefultransitionwasnotthenorm,however,andmanycountrieshadtowage
armedstruggletoattainpoliticalfreedom.
BlacksfromtheCaribbeanandDiasporavisitedandworkedinnewlyindependentcountries.
TheyalsosupportedtheMauMauofKenya,theANCinSouthAfrica,andthestruggleforNamibia’s
independence. Although independence was generally attained one state at a time, the states that
gained political independence provided resources for liberation movements from other African
countries. TheliberationofAfricawasseenasincompletewithouteachandeverycountrybeingfree
(Nkrumah1963).
Perhaps the apex of the connection among the struggle for liberation by Blacks worldwide
was during the wars for political independence in Africa and the Civil Rights Movement in the
United States. To a great extent, the two informed each other, as evidenced by the speeches
of Malcolm(1989,1992,1999) and Nelson Mandela (Mandela 1995). Torn between capitalism and
socialism/Marxism,MalcomXopinedthattherewasanotherway—theAfricanway. Histravelsto
Africa,andhisvisitstoGhana,Tanzania,andEgypt,amongothercountries,helpedhimseethatthere
werealternativestoEuropeanandNorthAmericanideologies(Mbuguni2014).
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Atthedawnofindependence,therewasageneralimpressionthatadoptingwesternformsof
governingorgovernmentisasignofbeingcivilizedorofbeingprogressive. Consequently, there
persistedanillusionthattruedemocracyimpliedthetraditionsandtrappingsthatgowithwestern
ritualsofpower,andthatinthedesireforfreedomAfricanshadtoadoptEuropeanwaysofbeing.
MalcolmXwasquicktopointoutthattherecouldbeavarietyofformsofbeingandofgoverning
forthosewhochoseto. Assuch,hepointedoutthatthoseAfricancountrieswhichwerefightingfor
independencedidnotwanttobeEuropeanized:
ButtheAfricansthemselveswanttobethemselves... . Theywanttotakeoutofanyother
philosophythatwhichtheycanadoptfortheirownneedsandtotheirowndevelopment.
But to be identified with either the Communist bloc or the capitalist bloc, I don’t think
you will find any African country or African leader who will buy that-he’s for Africa.
(Malcolm1989,p. 100)
ForBlackpeopleworldwide,MalcolmXsawculturalrenewalandreconnectionwithAfricaas
centraltoregainingasenseofhumanity.Hewasawarethat“historyisapeople’smemory,andwithout
amemorymanisdemotedtothelevelofloweranimals”(Malcolm1992,p. 55). Hisquestforhisown
historyandrootstookhimfirsttoElijahMuhammad. WhiletheteachingofElijahMuhammadgave
himadistortedversionoftheoriginsofhumankind,italsotookhimontothepathwhichledhimto
studyaspectsofAfricanandMiddleEasthistory. ItwasduringthisquestthatMalcolmXrealized
therewasmoretoBlackhistorythanmostAfricanAmericansknew. Hewasalsoawareoftheroleof
theeducationalsysteminhidingoreradicatingnonwesternhistory:
It is no accident that such a high state of culture existed in Africa and you and I know
nothingaboutit. Why,themanknewthataslongasyouandIthoughtweweresomebody
hecouldnevertreatuslikewewerenobody. Sohehadtoinventasystemthatwouldstrip
usofeverythingaboutusthatwecouldusetoproveweweresomebody. Andoncehehad
stripped us of all human characteristics, stripped us of our language, stripped us of our
history,strippedusofallourculturalknowledge,andbroughtustothelevelofanimals,
hethenbegantotreatuslikeananimal,sellingusfromoneplantationtoanother,sellingus
fromoneownertoanother,breedinguslikeyoubreedcattle. (Malcolm1992,p. 54)
Withoutahistoricalmemorytofallbackon,Blackswerevulnerabletoideologicalmanipulation
aswellasalackofconfidenceintheirself-worth(WaThiongo2009;Armah2010). Assuch,African
Americans(andtherestoftheworld)werenoteducatedortaughtenoughabouttheirownroots,
without which the struggle for human dignity lay in the impossible route of cultural assimilation.
WhatsurprisedMalcolmXwasthelackofknowledgeaboutAfricaingeneral,andamongAfrican
Americansinparticular: “theaverageblackpersonintheUnitedStatesknowsnothingaboutancient
EgyptiancivilizationontheAfricancontinent... .OrtheancientcivilizationsofMaliontheAfrican
continent. Civilizationsthatwerehighlydevelopedandproducedscientists”(Malcolm1989,p. 37).
While the lack of knowledge might be puzzling in itself, it became a way for the western
episteme to consolidate itself while simultaneously dislodging any positive attributes that could
be associated with the non-western knowledge systems and ways of being, or to erase African
history(WaThiongo2009;Armah2010). Intheprocessoferadicatingnonwesternwaysofknowing,
Europeansalsocontributedtonon-Europeanshatingthemselvesandtheirorigins. Malcolm(1989)
observedthatthisformofmentalcolonizationhadverydamagingandlong-lastingeffects,particularly
onAfricanAmericans.MalcolmXcontendedthattheimagethatEuropeans“createdofourmotherland
andtheimagethatyoucreatedofourpeopleonthatcontinentwasatrap,wasaprison,wasachain,
wastheworstformofslaverythathaseverbeeninventedbyaso-calledcivilizedraceandacivilized
nationsincethebeginningoftime”(p. 167). Suchculturalpracticesoftenreceivedtheblessingsof
thenationormanyphilanthropistswhowerekeentospreadcivilizationtothoseunderthecloudof
darkness. Foralongperiod,civilizationwassynonymouswithadoptingEuropeanways.
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In as much as Malcolm X strove to promote Pan Africanism, he was particularly concerned
about the rebirth, as it were, of the spirit and culture of African Americans and connecting it to
Africa. Cognizantoftheimpactofracismandslaveryontheblackpsyche,hestrovetoconscientize
African-Americansabouttheirownhistoryandhumanity. Withoutsuchawarenessraising,Malcolm
Xwasconvincedtheyweredoomedtobeperpetuallybeholdentotheirmastersforliberation:
Whentheblackmaninthiscountryawakens, becomesintellectuallymatureandableto
think for himself, you will then see that the only way he will become independent and
recognizedasahumanbeingisonthebasisofequalitywithallotherhumanbeings. He
hastohavewhattheyhaveandhehastobedoingforhimselfwhatothersaredoingfor
themselves,sothefirststepistoawakenhimtothisandthatiswherethereligionofIslam
makeshimmorallymoreabletoriseabovetheevilsandthevicesofanimmoralsociety.
Andthepolitical,economic,andsocialphilosophyofblacknationalisminstillswithinhim
theracialdignityandtheincentiveandtheconfidencethatheneedstostandonhisownfeet
andtakeastandforhimself. (Malcolm1992,p. 38)
Psychological and cultural regeneration, grounded on Pan Africanism, were an essential
componenttothepathtoself-discoveryandparticipationasequalsintheglobalhumanfamily.
Malcolm(1992)wasconvincedthatBlacks“armedwiththeknowledgeof[our]past,[we]canwith
confidencecharteracourseforourfuture. Cultureisanintegralweaponinthefreedomstruggle”(p.
56). LearningAfricanculturebecameanimportanttoolandstrategyforrecreatingandstrengthening
PanAfricanism. Hewasalsoawarethat,whileAfricanswereembracingIslamandotherindigenous
religions,therewerealternativestoEuropeancivilizationthathadstoodthetestoftime. Tounshackle
thebondsofmentalslaverynecessitatedaculturaleducationcloselylinkedtodevelopmentsoutside
the United States. Dunayevskaya (1982) credited Malcolm X with transforming and infusing into
blacknessarevolutionaryconsciousnessaswellasuniversalizingthenatureoftherevolutionagainst
white supremacy. What Malcolm X accomplished in his theorizing about the non-Western world
amountstowhatAsante(1999)sawtheplacingofdifferentphilosophiesassourcesforcreatingabetter
anddifferentworld.
Asante(1990,1999)creditedMalcolmXwithgroundinghisconceptionofthelifeandhistoryin
anAfrocentricworldview,ortheabilityandwillingnesstoseetheworldthroughPanAfricanism.Byso
doing,MalcolmXstandsontheshouldersofotherPan-Africanists,includingDuBois(1986,1992,1995)
whohadcritiquedandrejectedtheviewthatWesternwaysofknowingweretheonlyonesthatwere
legitimate. Similar to Du Bois, Malcolm X sought cultural regeneration or the quest of better and
meaningfulhumanitybylookingattheworldthroughPanAfricanism. Monteiro(2000)sawinthe
workDuBoisoneofthefirstintellectualstointerrogatetheproblemsofraceandcapitalismfrom
anAfricanperspective,whileSmallwood(2005)contendedthatMalcolmXcouldbeseenasoneof
theprogenitorsoftheBlackStudiesdisciplines,particularlywithregardstohiscallforreevaluating
thecurriculumsothatitreflectedtheachievementsofblacks. Whilethereareundoubtedlymany
similaritiesbetweentheworkofMalcolmXandW.E.B.DuBois,MalcolmXwasradicalinthewayshe
sawandattributedthetransformativeroletothewholecommunityratherthanthetalentedtenthin
whichDuBoissawthehopefortheregenerationoftherace.
A few scholars, among them Lefkowitz (1996) and Walker (1991), question the legitimacy of
Afrocentrism and the Afrocentric worldview in general, and contend that it is based on myths.
While Malcolm (1989, 1992, 1999) and Du Bois (1995) based their affirmation of the validity of
the epistemology of the Black world on empirical and ethnographical studies and encounters,
Lefkowitz and Walker did not offer much justification for their denial other than an incredulity
thatthenonwesternworldcouldofferacivilizationthatcouldchallengethestatusheldbytheWest.
Indeed, they seem to be unaware of the work of W.E.B. Du Bois. Indeed, while they are quick to
associateAfrocentrismwithmyth-making,neitherquestionstheideologicalandfictionalnarratives
thatconstructEuropeanandAmericanhistories.
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MalcolmXwasawarethatblack“historyandourculturewerecompletelydestroyedwhenwe
wereforciblybroughttoAmericainchains. Andnowitisimportantforustoknowthatourhistory
didnotbeginwithslavery”(Malcolm1992,p. 53). MostofthosewhorejectedAfrocentrismwere
alsounwillingtoacceptthatthereismoretoBlackhistorythantheencounterwithmodernity,orthat
Blackscouldaspiretobeanythingmorethanformerslavesorformercolonialswhohavetodepend
ontheirformerslavemastersandcolonizersforconstructingaviablefutureforAfrica. Inaddition
topromotingandadvocatingforPanAfricanismindifferentplatforms,MalcolmXandothersofhis
generationuseduniversitiesasaplacefordeliberatingonthepotentialofPanAfricanismtoradically
altertheconditionofBlacksworldwide. Universities,inmanyways,playedaroleinshapingand
preservingtheideaoftheunityoronenessofAfrica.
WomenandPanAfricanism
ThevastamountofliteratureonPanAfricanismgivestheimpressionthatitwasamale-dominated
initiative,withwomenbeinginvisible,orplayingmarginalroles. However,acloserreadingofthe
eventsandactivitiesassociatedwiththePanAfricanMovementshowsthatwomenplayedapivotal
role in its history as well as the ideological directions it followed. Roy-Campbell (1996) observed
that, forthemostpart, thefirstFiveCongressescouldbedescribedasmale-centered.Thewomen
whosepresencewasacknowledgedincludeShirleyDuBois,AmyGarvey,MaryMcLeodBethuneand
AnnieCooper.
InreadingPan-Africanismthroughawesternpatriarchaleye,itispossibletonotseethepresence
of women or the leadership roles they played in Pan-Africanism. However, the 1927 Pan African
CongressheldinNewYorkwitnessedasignificantpresenceofBlackwomen,otherthanjustthosewho
werewivesoftheleadingmen. TheSixthandSeventhPanAfricanCongressesdevotedasignificant
amountoftheirproceedingstoaddressingtheconcernsofBlackwomen.
ItwouldbeamistaketoviewtheissuesfacingAfricanwomenasradicallydistinctfromthose
thatconfrontedAfricanmen,whetherintheglobalnorthortheglobalsouth. WomenintheDiaspora
aswellasthoseinthemotherlandwerecognizantofthis. InprotestingtheassassinationofLumumba,
women from different countries, including the United States, saw in the assassination a reminder
of the lynching of African men. As Morrison observed, “from a woman’s point of view, in terms
ofconfrontingtheproblemswheretheworldisnow, blackwomenhadtodealwithpost-modern
problems ... certain kinds of dissolution, the loss of and the need to reconstruct certain kinds of
stability”(Morrison,ascitedinGilroy1993,p. 178).
ThequotefromMorrisonaboveillustratesthewaysAfricanwomenwereinvolvedinthefight
foraqualitativelybetterworld,notjustwithinaspecificgeographicallocation. Intheperiodafter
1945,andespeciallyduringtheCivilRightsMovementintheUnitedStates,auniqueconsciousness
manifesteditselfinthelivesandworkofBlackwomen: itwas“atimeofgivingbirthandofgetting
born into a wider concept of ourselves ... and into a heightened sense of art and the Struggle as
inseparablebedmates”(DavisandDee1998,p. 202).
Among the issues addressed at the Sixth and Seventh Pan African Congresses included the
survivalofBlackorAfricanwomenandchildren;womenandtheenvironment;andwomenandthe
law(Roy-Campbell1996). Cognizantoftheprevalenceofwarandconflict,therewereinitiativesto
strengthen a Pan African Women’s Liberation Movement. Women not only played active roles in
theCongresses,buttheirlifestylesshowedcommitmenttoPanAfricanism,andoftentheyrelocated
(eveniftemporarily)toAfrica. Blackwomenwereinvolvedintryingtochangetheworld.
Maya Angelou is among the women who moved to Africa (Ghana) partly as a result of her
commitmenttoPanAfricanism,andpartlybecauseatthattimeshewasmarriedtoananti-apartheid
activist(Angelou1986,2009). ForAngelou,AfricaandAfricanculturewerecentraltotheliberationof
Blackpeopleworldwide. Blackpeoplehadtofeelasenseofbelongingto,ofidentifyingwithAfrica.
Women, to a great extent, became the mothers of the revolution, of the struggle for the liberation
ofAfricaanditspeople. TheconditionsofBlackpeopleinonepartoftheworldcouldnotbeseen
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as different from other parts of the world, for there was a kinship by virtue of racial experiences
(Smithers2011). In many ways, Africa gave Blacks from the diaspora a sense of home, belonging,
andfamily. However,beingathomeinAfricadidnoterasethememoriesslaveryandracisminthe
UnitedStates.
Forwomen,thereturntoAfricawasnotwithoutchallenges. Reflectingonherexperiencesin
Ghana,Angelouobserved“IdoubtedifIoranyblackfromthediaspora,couldreallyreturntoAfrica.
Weworeskeletonsofolddespairlikenecklaces,heraldingourarrival,andwewerebrandedwith
cynicism”(Angelou1986,p. 84). ThepointhereisthatarrivalinAfricadidnotmeananendtothe
everydaychallenges,butithelpedwiththeawarenessoftheglobalsignificanceofPanAfricanism.
WhenMalcolmXmetwithMayaAngelouinGhana, hewasabletopersuadehertoreturntothe
UnitedStatestocontinuetoworkfortheliberationofBlackpeople. HerexperiencesinGhanagave
heratasteoflivinginaplacewhereracismwasnotthenorm,whereBlackswherenotsubjectedto
violence(Nehl2016). IndependentAfrica,asitwere,offeredhopefortherebirthofhumanity,orthe
rebirthandhealingofthosewhohadbeensubjectedtoviolenceandracism,especiallyintheglobal
north(Smith2008).
Campbell (1996) observed that African women played an important role in the liberation
movementsinAfrica,andassuch,shouldneitherbemarginalizednorsilenced.Women,according
to Campbell, were at the heart of Pan Africanism’s self-understanding and definition and
independence(cultural,economic,andpolitical). ItisprimarilythroughtheworkofAfricanwomen,
particularlythoseabletoresisttheseductivelureofcrassmaterialism,thatAfricacanberedeemed
(Armah2008,2010).
4. Universities,Education,andPanAfricanism
Universities,inandoutsideAfrica,playedaleadingroleinthedevelopmentofPanAfricanism,
especiallyinthe20thCentury. AftertheabolitionofslaveryintheAmericas,someuniversitiesbegan
admittingBlackstudents,aswellasstudentsfromAfrica. However,itwasnotuntilthepassageof
theCivilRightsActin1964thatuniversitiesintheUnitedStatesreluctantlyadmittedBlackstudents
(Hendrickson2003;Doyle2001;Meredith1966). Insomecases,theadmissionofBlackstudentsledto
riotsandprotests,andprevailedonlyattheinterventionofthefederalgovernment(Meredith1966).
GrantedthelimitedplacesforBlackstudentsinpredominantlyWhiteuniversities,thereemerged
a number of Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCU) and it was in these universities
thatBlacks fromdifferentpartsofthe world(Africa, NorthAmerica, andthe Caribbean)metand
exchangedideas. Parker(2009)arguedthatuniversitiesintheUnitedStatesplayedanimportantrole
inthestruggleagainstcolonialisminAfrica. SuchuniversitiesincludedHowardandLincoln.
It was at Lincoln University that Nkrumah would encounter other Africans from colonized
nations.ItwasalsowhileatLincolnthathegainedabetteranddeeperunderstandingoftheconditions
facingAfricanAmericans,orBlacksintheUnitedStates. Likewise,itwasatLincolnthatAzikwegot
introducedtoPanAfricanism,especiallyaftermeetingPadmore(Azikwe1970). Whilethestudents
mighthavecomefromdifferentcoloniesinAfrica,a“contemporaryvisitortoTuskegeenotedthat“now
thesemenhaveanAfricanconsciousness;theirloyaltyisnotLiberianorRhodesianorGold-Coastan,
butAfrican”(Parker2009,p. 730). UniversitieswereanidealgroundfornurturingPan-Africanism
(Franklin2011;Asante2010;Fenderson2010).
Inasimilarmanner,universitiesandotherinstitutionsoflearninginAfricaplayedasignificant
roleindevelopingaPanAfricanconsciousnessamongstudents. Mandela(Mandela1995)arguedthat
schoolswereamongthefewplacesthatpeoplefromdifferenttribesmetonequalfootingandformed
friendshipsthatotherwisemightnothavebeen. Someofhisearliestcontactsaswellashisknowledge
oftheANCwerewithinthecontextofhighschoolandcollegeeducation.Theinteractionswithstudents
fromothertribesalsomadeiteasierforstudentstolearnotherAfricanlanguages. Mandelaalsotraced
thegenesisofhispan-Africanidentitytohisexperiencesatbothhighschoolandcollege. Onsome
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occasions, missionaries sent students to evangelize in the villages, and during these expeditions
studentsnotonlydiscussedpolitics: theyalsoformedfriendshipsacrossdenominationallines.
Duringapartheid,therewereveryfewpost-secondaryinstitutionsforAfricans. Themostfamous,
accordingtoMandela(Mandela1995),wasFortHare. Eventhoughblacksweresegregated,theysaw
Fort Hare as the best university where they could obtain the best education in Southern Africa.
AccordingtoMandela:
TheUniversityCollegeofFortHare... wastheonlyresidentialcenterofhighereducation
forblacksinSouthAfrica. FortHarewasmorethanthat: itwasabeaconforAfricanscholars
fromoverSouthernCentralandEasternAfrica. ForyoungblackSouthAfricanslikemyself,
itwasOxfordandCambridge,HarvardandYale,allrolledintoone. (p. 43)
ThecoursesofferedwhenMandelawasastudentatFortHareincludedanthropology,Roman
DutchLaw,English,politics,andNativeAdministration. Partlybecauseofitsacademicexcellence
aswellastheinternationalstudents,FortHarewasarguablythepremieruniversityforincubating
andnursingAfricanrevolutionaryconsciousnessunderapartheidconditions. Mandela’sclassmates
includedOliverTamboandZ.Matthews,bothofwhomheldpostsintheAfricanNationalCongress.
FortHarealsocountedSteveBiko,RobertMugabe,SeretseKhama,JuliusNyerere,DesmondTutu,
JoshuaNkomo,andGovanMbekiamongitsalumni(Malisa2010). IntheprocessofsegregatingBlacks,
apartheidinadvertentlymadeitpossibleforPanAfricanismtotakeroot. Manyofitsalumnibecame
staunchopponentsofapartheidwithinandoutsideSouthAfrica. Mugabe,Nyerere,andKhamalater
became heads of state with varying degrees of success and failure as disciples of Pan Africanism.
ItwasalsowithinthecontextofuniversityeducationthatSteveBikobecameactivein,andlaterled
the Black Consciousness Movement which was credited with affirming the humanity of blacks in
thefaceofthedehumanizingonslaughtofapartheid. Althoughuniversitiesgenerallypropagated
a Eurocentric worldview, there was a growing awareness of the ways institutions of learning had
participated in the deliberate falsification of knowledge about Africa and Africans (Wilson 1993;
ShockleyandFrederick2010;Asante1999;Andrews2014).
Access to formal Western education, however, did not yield the desired effect with regard to
PanAfricanism. TheAfricanswhowereeducatedinEuropeandNorthAmericawereincapableof
transformingtheAfricanconditionorofsolvingAfricanproblemsandrealities(Armah1973,2008).
SuchAfricans,withthebackingofEuropeandNorthAmerica,were“completelyintegratedintothe
statusquothattheycouldnotthinkofdesigning, muchlessofoperating, andalternativesystem”
(Armah2010,p. 17). EvenNelsonMandela,educatedatFortHareinSouthAfrica,wascognizant
ofthewaysthateducationhadnotpreparedhimtosolveSouthAfricanproblems(Mandela1995).
ItremainsdifficulttoenvisionthatanAnglo-Americaneducation,orthoseeducatedinthattradition,
willbeinapositiontosolvetheissuesfacingAfrica. Unpreparedandunwillingtoimagineawayof
lifeindependentofNorthAmericaandEurope,theirfunctionis“invariablythedeepeningofAfrican
povertyintheinterestsofEuropeanprosperity”(Armah2010,p. 19).
5. TowardsanAfricanRenaissance: NotyetUhuru
At the beginning of the 21st Century, there was some optimism about the present and future
of Africa, especially in the idea of theAfrican Renaissance as articulated by former South African
President, Thabo Mbeki (Ajulu 2001; Mulemfo 2000; Mbeki 1999). The abolition of apartheid and
the insertion of the philosophy of Ubuntu in African and global discourse gave the impression
that the revolution had been accomplished and Africa was free at last (Malisa 2010; Ajulu 2001).
Asaphilosophy,UbuntuplacedimportanceonthehumanityofAfricans,ahumanitythathadbeen
rejectedbymodernity. TherebirthofAfricawasabouttobegin,andforawhile,thefadingambersof
PanAfricanismwererekindled.
AlthoughUbuntuislargelyassociatedwiththeworkofBishopDesmondTutu(1999)andNelson
MandelawithregardtotheTruthandReconciliationProcessinpost-apartheidSouthAfrica,itwasalso