Table Of ContentMortuary Monuments and Burial
Grounds of the Historic Period
MANUALSINARCHAEOLOGICALMETHOD,THEORYANDTECHNIQUE
SeriesEditor:
CharlesE.Orser,Jr.,IllinoisStateUniversity,Normal,Illinois
Michael,B.Schiffer,UniversityofArizona,Tucson,Arizona
ARCHAEOLOGICALSURVEY
E.B.Banning
LITHICANALYSIS
GeorgeOdell
MORTUARYMONUMENTSANDBURIALGROUNDSOFTHEHISTORICPERIOD
Harold Mytum
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Mortuary Monuments and Burial
Grounds of the Historic Period
Harold Mytum
University of York
York, United Kingdom
SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, LLC
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Mytum, H. C.
Mortuary monuments and burial grounds of the historic period I by Harold Mytum.
p. cm. - (Manuals in archaeological method, theory, and technique)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-306-48076-8 ISBN 978-1-4419-9038-9 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4419-9038-9
1. Sepulchral monuments. 2. Cemeteries. 3. War memorials. 4. Funeral rites and
ceremonies. 1. Title. II. Series.
CC77.B8M962004 2003061895
ISBN 978-0-306-48076-8
© 2004 Springer-Science+Business Media New York
Originally published by Kluwer AcademicIPlenum Publishers, New York in 2004
Softcover reprint of the hardcover lst edition 2004
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 I
A c.I.P record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
Al! rights reserved
No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or
by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, ar otherwise, without
written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the
purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of
the book.
ToMichaelFarr,BillFord,andjocelynMorris,whoencouragedmeinmyarchaeologywhilstatschool
and university,and who gavememyfirstprojectsinWarwick, fromwhich myinterestsinhistorical
archaeologycame.
Preface
Burial grounds strike animmediatechord with allwho visit them. They areland
scapes full ofpathos and culturalassociationswhich many findattractive, though
aminorityfeelaretoomorbid todeserve detailedattention.This bookisdesigned
toofferaframeworkforstudyinghistoricburialgroundmonuments,andcontains
a certain amount of information regarding below-ground archaeology, as some
projects will involve the study of both. Moreover, from a research perspective
aboveandbelow groundarchaeologytogethercanthrowconsiderablelightonthe
processofdying, body disposal andcommemorationthatformed acontinuumfor
those involved. However, the more easily accessiblegraveyard memorialscan be
used to study many aspects of past culture beyond that directly associated with
death, andthey arethe focus ofthebook.
Most peoplewho becomeinterestedinhistoric graveyard memorialscome
to the subject via the material itself. Only rarely does a research question get
posed, and graveyard data seem like an appropriate arena for investigation.This
hastheadvantagethatmanyresearchershavesome ideas about thedataavailable,
but the disadvantage that they may not have clearquestions to ask ofit, nor how
to set their discoveries in a wider intellectual context. The purpose of this book
is therefore to show those with particular questions that, in some cases at least,
graveyarddata may be avaluableresearcharea, butalso those with aninterestin
burial grounds and their monuments what sorts of topics can be studiedthrough
their data,and how their results can becomparedand contrastedwith those from
elsewhere.Throughaseries ofchronologicalchapters(2-4)thegeneralsequence
of developmentof mortuary behavioris outlined, then the material isconsidered
underaseriesofthematicchapters(5-8).Herethecurentstateofknowledgeandthe
researchquestionsalready posed inatleastsome regions andperiods areoutlined.
Suggestedstrategiesfordevelopingtheseaspects, andalsonewareasareproposed.
Thus,thechaptersprovideastimulustodirectedresearchandreferencestorelevant
literaturetohelp situate furtherwork within theexistingknowledgebase.
Thebookcouldhaveprovidedastep-by-stepmethodofrecordinggraveyard
memorials, but as the data requiredfor differentresearchquestions isso diverse,
and the range offorms, types of decoration and cultural contextso variable over
vii
viii MORTUARYMONUMENTSANDBURIALGROUNDS
bothtimeandspace,thiswouldhavecreatedeitheranextremelylargeandunwieldy
volume,oronewhich wasproblematicandconfusingformost users.Instead,em
phasis hasbeenplacedonthebackgroundandcontextofmemorialization,andon
thegeneralfactors thatneedtobeconsideredinthelightoflocalcircumstancesand
research aims.Many ofthe publicationsgive little informationon how fieldwork
was conducted,but some ofthe practicalissues are discussedhere,and examples
ofrecordingforms areprovidedintheAppendix.Chapter9doesgivesomepracti
caladviceregardinggraveyardrecording,includingsome ofthespecificelements
that make historicburial excavationunique.
Graveyardmemorialsform arichseamofarchaeologicalevidence,butpub
lication is often in a local format. I have tried to offer an international range of
examplesto show general trends and theeffects of local cultural traits.Weare all
familiar with our own areas and regions, and imagine others must be the same.
Despitesome national andindeedglobal features, many aspects haveaclearlocal
manifestation.The situatingofgraveyardstudies within thelocal isboth valuable
and stimulating,but itcan mean that valuablestudies of interesttoothers are not
discovered. Ihavetried tofollow up referencesand search for appropriateexam
ples, but my inevitably restricted experience may be visible in places, and some
books andjournalsIhavenotbeen abletotrace fromBritain. Some aspectswhich
Iconsiderunderdevelopedmayhavebeen examinedandpublishedinjournalsnot
easily available tome,and aswork proceedsthis will undoubtedlybethecase, so
anyinformationonotherpublishedmaterial would bewelcome.Thebibliography
containsmanyrecentreferencesandsomeoftheclassicones,butIrecommendde
tailed studyofBell'sVestigesofMortality& Remembrance.ABibliographyonthe
HistoricalArchaeologyofCemeteries(1994), and subscriptiontotheAssociation
for GravestoneStudies. Somemay findmyRecordingandAnalysingGraveyards
(2000) ofvalue, though written primarilyforaBritishand Irish context.
Fortoolong graveyardstudies havebeen seen asaneccentricbywayrather
than aspecialistsubjectarea with asmuch tocontributeasthe study ofceramics,
buildingtypes or faunal remains.As acategoryofmaterial evidencewith variety
of form,decorationand text, and well contextualized spatially and temporally,it
shouldbe suitable for many forms of analysis.Excavatedmortuaryevidencehas
tended to be seen as a source for biological data, and the cultural dimension has
often been underdeveloped. The linking between above and below ground data
has rarely been achieved,and the integration ofgraveyarddata within settlement
and landscapearchaeologyhas also been likewise rarely attempted.Whilstmuch
has been undertaken, there isfarmore todo,and itcan be achieved onarange of
scales appropriatetotheresourcesofindividualsandteams.Moreover, assomuch
of graveyard archaeology is non-destructive, it carries fewer ethical constraints
and can be undertaken by those at many stages of their careers. It can be an
archaeological activity well placed to be integrated within the community, and
an arena where local populations can feel a sense of pride and association with
materialculturefrom thepast.
PREFACE ix
Ihavebeen involvedingraveyard recordingformanyyears, andinthattime
many people have encouraged my interest, and helped me with my researches.
Philip Rahtz was an importantearly influence, and Ithank him for hiscontinued
support and the use of some images reproduced in this book, listed below. My
wife Caroline was a great help with my surveys in Wales and Gibraltar, where
ChrisandChristineWebster alsogavevaluable assistance.Morerecent surveys in
Ireland and Yorkshire havebenefitted from thehelp ofSteve Rowlands and Carol
Simmonds,and particularlytheenthusiasmand dedicationof Robert Evans, who
has also kindly read through and commented on the text. Most of all, however,
graveyard recording is a team effort, involving many people, and all the under
graduateandgraduatestudentsfromtheUniversityofYork,internationalstudents
ontheUniversity ofYorkCastell Henllys FieldSchool, andEarthwatchvolunteers
need to be thanked for their steady application in the field and in data entry and
processing. Mywork on the YorkDiocesanAdvisoryCommitteehas allowed me
manyopportunitiestoconsidertheimplicationsofecclesiasticaldevelopmentand
conservation in relation to below and above ground archaeology, and to see the
competingneeds of various interestgroups inrelation tothe heritage.Illustration
credits:allphotographsarebytheauthorexcept forthose byPhilip Rahtz (figures
19,left, 22, 29,42,45,46) Joshua de Giorgio (figure 14,left) CatherineMarlow
(figure 7) and Department of Archaeology, University of York(figures 4, 5, 40,
53);Ithank them for thegift oftheir images, orpermission topublish them here.
This bookaspirestocreateamorediverse useofgraveyardmonuments,and
allow scholarstoplace theirown findings inawider context. Itthereforecontains
alargenumberofreferences,andexamplesfrommanyplaces. Itissuitable foruse
bystudents,byCRM professionals,andthoseinvolvedineducationatanumberof
levels. Thoughwritten from anarchaeological perspective, itshould haveavalue
to cultural historians, folklorists, geographers, anthropologists, sociologists and
artand architectural historians.
I look forward to the developing research agendas of the years ahead, and
hope that those who read this book are stimulated to use existing data in new
ways, andcollect,analyze andpublish theresults oftheirown fieldwork.Iwould
be grateful for bibliographic references and where possible copies of published
papers sothatanyfurther edition ofthisbook can incorporaterelevant newwork.
Harold Mytum
The King'sManor
York,United Kingdom
Contents
LISTOFFIGURES .......................................•..........• xvii
LISTOFTABLES xxiii
1. INTRODUCTION ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 1
1. A BRIEFHISTORY HISTORICALMORTUARYARCHAEOLOGY •••••• 2
1.1 AntiquarianInterests ............•..............•.......... 2
1.2 The Originsand DevelopmentofContemporaryResearch 2
1.2.1 Memorialsand CarvingTraditions .............•...... 3
1.2.2 ScientificExcavationofHistoricBurials 3
1.2.3 MaturingMemorialResearch 4
2. THEORETICALApPROACHES ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 5
2.1 Culture-history.........................•.......•.......•. 5
2.2 FunctionalistApproaches 7
2.3 StructuralistApproaches ...................... 8
2.4 MarxistApproaches ....................................... 8
2.5 SymbolicStudies 9
2.6 OtherRecently DevelopedApproaches 10
3. SUMMARY ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 11
2. FOLKTRADITIONSANDHIGHCULTURE: FUNERARYAND
COMMEMORATIVEPRACTICETOTHE EARLY 18THCENTURY••••• 13
1. DEATH •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 13
1.1 The Good Death .............•..............•.•...•...... 14
2. THEFUNERAL ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 14
2.1 Mourning Dressand FuneralExpenditure 15
3. BURIALGROUNDS ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••15
3.1 Location 17
3.1.1 Britishand EuropeanBurial Grounds ........••....... 17
3.1.2 North AmericanBurial Grounds 18
xi
Xli MORTUARYMONUMENTSANDBURIALGROUNDS
3.2 SpatialArrangement........•. •........................... 19
3.2.1 BritishandEuropeanBurialPatterns ..•. •. ........... 19
3.2.2 NorthAmericanBurialPatterns 20
3.3 Burial 21
4. INTERNAL MEMORIALS ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 22
4.1 Materials............................................... 23
4.2 Forms ..........................................••...... 23
5. EXTERNALMEMORIALS •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 24
5.1 Materials 25
5.2 Forms ...••......•.................•.................... 25
5.2.1 ExternalMuralMonuments 25
5.2.2 Posts,PostsandRails,andGrave
Boards 26
5.2.3 Headstones 26
5.2.4 AdditionalElements ...........••..•..•............ 29
5.2.5 Ledgers .....................•...•. ............... 29
5.2.6 Tombs ................................•...•...... 30
5.2.7 PedestalMonuments 31
5.2.8 LargeMonuments 31
5.3 DecorationandSymbols .......................•.......... 32
5.3.1 Heraldry 32
5.3.2 ArchitecturalandFurnitureElements 32
5.3.3 FolkArtMotifs.•........•.........................33
5.3.4 Mortality ....•..........•.........•. .............. 33
6. CONCLUSIONS ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 33
3. AMATURINGINDUSTRY: THEMID-18THCENTURYTO EARLY20TH
CENTURy••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••35
1. THEFUNERAL ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 36
1.1 TheCoffinandPreparationoftheBody 36
1.2 IncreasingCommercialisation 39
1.3 PopularFearsRegardingBurial ....................••...... 40
2. MOURNING •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 40
2.1 MourningJewelry 40
2.2 OtherMourningMaterialCulture 41
3. COMMEMORATION ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 41
4. BURIALGROUNDSANDCEMETERIES •••••••••••••••••••••••••••42
4.1 Location 42
4.1.1 RuralLocationsinBritainandEurope 42
4.1.2 RuralLocationsinColonialContexts 43
4.1.3 WarCemeteries 44
4.1.4 UrbanLocations..........•.............•.......... 45
