Table Of Content

HOUSESTEADS ROMAN FORT THE GRANDEST STATION volume 1 Structural Report and Discussion Alan Rushworth a ENGLI S H H ERITAGE houseprelvol1.qxd 03/08/2009 17:32 Page i HOUSESTEADS ROMAN FORT – THE GRANDEST STATION Volume 1 Structural Report and Discussion houseprelvol1.qxd 03/08/2009 17:32 Page iii HOUSESTEADS ROMAN FORT – THE GRANDEST STATION Excavation and survey at Housesteads, 1954–95, by Charles Daniels, John Gillam, James Crow and others Alan Rushworth with contributions by L Allason-Jones, D Allen, M C Bishop, R J Brickstock, P J Casey, I D Caruana, J G Crow, B Dickinson, J N Dore, D B Dungworth, W B Griffiths, K Hartley, M Henig, P R Hill, P Moffat, Q Mould, D J Smith, D Starley, R S O Tomlin, M Van der Veen, C Waddington, H Welfare and D A Welsby ENGLISH HERITAGE 2009 ARCHAEOLOGICAL REPORTS houseprelvol1.qxd 03/08/2009 17:32 Page v Contents Preface and dedication ix 4 Modifications to the primary fort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acknowledgements xi The defences 52 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary xiii The north-east angle 52 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Résumé xv The northern defences 53 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Zusammenfassung xvii The eastern defences 59 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dating evidence 62 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Discussion: the metalworking activity Volume 1 in the former rampart areas 65 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Later modifications to the east defences 67 . . . . . 1 Introduction Remodelling of the north defences 69 . . . . . . . . . . The site 1 The buildings 79 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . History of investigation 3 Building XIII 79 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The antiquarian phase – ‘the Tadmor Building XIV 94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . of Britain’ 3 Building XV 95 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Previous excavation 4 ThestreetbetweenBuildingsXIII andXIV 102 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Consolidation 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Work in the north-east corner 8 Colour Plates 103–4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The 1974–1981 excavations 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Methodology 13 5 The chalet phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Original research aims 16 The defences 105 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The analysis phase 17 The north rampart 105 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The fort: associated survey 18 The east rampart 109 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Survey and excavation in the fort environs 18 The buildings 114 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary of phasing 18 Building XIII 114 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Phasing concordance 18 The via principalis and Building VII 127 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dating 24 ThestreetbetweenBuildingsXIII andXIV 129 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Site phasing summaries 24 Building XIV 130 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Presentation of the dating evidence 28 Building XV 133 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Presentation of the finds listings 28 Discussion: the date of the chalet ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Context, site and building designation 29 and Building XV 134 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Hadrian’s Wall and pre-Roman 6 Modifications to the chalet phase agricultural activity The defences 136 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Agricultural activity 31 The north rampart (H20 Phases 4b–e) 136 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Finds 31 The east rampart 148 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dating evidence 31 The buildings 149 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Discussion 31 Building XIII 149 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hadrian’s Wall 33 Building XIV 168 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dating evidence 34 Building XV 171 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The street between Buildings XIII and XIV 173 . 3 The primary fort The defences 35 7 Post-Roman occupation in the north-east . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The curtain wall 35 quarter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The primary north-east angle tower 35 The late Roman to early medieval transition 178 . . . . . . . . . . . . . The rampart 36 Introduction 178 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Finds 40 The final occupation in Building XIII 178 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dating evidence 40 The eastern end of Building XIII and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The buildings 42 adjacent road surfaces 179 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Building XIII 42 The street south of Building XIII 183 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The via principalis and Building VII 46 Flagging over the north intervallum road 187 . . . . . . . . . . . . . Building XIV 47 Structures over the western end of XIII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Building XV 49 and the via principalis 190 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The function of the primary buildings 49 Building XIV 194 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v houseprelvol1.qxd 03/08/2009 17:32 Page vi Building XV 194 Structural history 227 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Discussion 197 North-west angle tower 227 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Medieval and later activity 199 Description 227 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Trackway across the north rampart–H20:8:3 199 Structural history 227 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ploughing 200 Rampart Sector 27 227 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Description 227 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Excavation and survey of the principia and Structural history 228 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the gateways Discussion 229 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction 201 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Excavations in the principia, 1954 by D J Smith 201 10 Investigation in the environs of Housesteads, . Introduction 201 1976–1995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The east wall of the principia 201 Previous work in the vicus and environs 233 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The ‘stepped platform’ 201 The 19th century 233 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The pier 204 The 20th century 233 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The entrance to the principia 205 Survey of Housesteads environs by H G Welfare 235 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dating evidence 205 Geology and landscape form 235 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Architectural features in the principia by P R Hill 205 The remains of arable agriculture 235 . . . . . . . . . . The threshold 205 The Vallum 238 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The column bases 205 The earthwork defences of the fort 239 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The portico base 205 The extent of the vicus 241 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The gateways – Technical survey of The baths and wells 241 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the masonry by P R Hill 206 The mithraeum 242 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction 206 Roads and tracks 243 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Definitions 206 Cemeteries 245 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The north gate 207 Column fragments 247 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The south gate 209 Extractive industries and processing 247 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The east gate 210 Shielings and other buildings and enclosures 249 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The west gate 213 Excavations around the fort by J G Crow 249 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The four gateways – general discussion 215 Housesteads Farm 249 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusions 217 Coarseware by J N Dore 256 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Housesteads water pipe 258 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 The development of the defences and The Knag Burn Gateway 1988–1989 259 . . . . . . rampart areas The ‘House of the Beneficiarius Consularis’ Introduction 218 (Vicus Building V) by P R Hill 263 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fort curtain 219 Description 263 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Description 219 Summary and discussion 264 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Structural history 220 Discussion: the fort and vicus 264 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rampart Sectors 22–27: introduction 220 . . . . . . . . . . Rampart Sector 22 220 11 Discussion: aspects of the site’s history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Description 220 Introduction 269 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Structural history 221 Evidence for prehistoric occupation 269 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . South-east angle tower 221 Housesteads environment in the early . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Description 221 2nd century 270 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Structural history 221 The earliest Roman military structures 270 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The latrines (Site XIX) 222 Turret 36b and Broad Wall foundation 270 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rampart Sector 23 222 The Hadrianic fort 270 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Description 222 Construction of the fort 270 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Structural history 223 The Hadrianic fort plan 271 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rampart Sector 24 223 The barracks of the praetenturaand retentura 272 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Description 223 The early Antonine period: continuity or . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Structural history 224 abandonment? 272 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . South-west angle tower 225 Structural evidence 273 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Description 225 The samian assemblage 273 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Structural history 225 The Severan reconstruction phase 274 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rampart Sector 25 225 Dating evidence: the Severan dedication 275 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Description 225 The structural evidence: the central range 276 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Structural history 226 Discussion: the buildings of the central . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rampart Sector 26 227 range 278 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Description 227 Structural evidence: the north-east quarter 279 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi houseprelvol1.qxd 03/08/2009 17:32 Page vii The north gateway, north-east angle tower Fired daub 361 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . and the Knag Burn gate and curtain 280 Discussion by D Welsby and A Rushworth 361 . . . . . . . . . The rampart-area workshops 280 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The buildings of the north-east quarter and the 13 The coins by R J Brickstock and P J Casey 2nd- to 3rd-century garrison 282 Introduction 363 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The garrison in the 2nd and 3rd centuries: Published collections 363 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . epigraphic and documentary evidence 283 Discussion 363 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The garrison in the 2nd and 3rd centuries: Overview 364 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . excavation and structural evidence 288 The vicus 365 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The fort during the later empire 296 The fort 367 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reconstruction and renovation 296 Hoards 375 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Towers and platforms 297 Knag Burn gate 376 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The chalets 298 Housesteads milecastle (MC 37) 376 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Buildings XV and later Roman storehouses 307 Chapel Hill 376 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The fort environs in late antiquity 311 Counterfeits 377 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Housesteads in the later 4th century and beyond 314 Coin moulds 377 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Structural evidence: the later phases of the Catalogue 377 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . defences and chalet ranges 314 . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparative evidence 316 14 The small finds by L Allason Jones, with . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dating: the documentary evidence and contributions by M Henig, W B Griffiths and Q Mould material assemblages 317 Discussion 430 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The latest alterations to the buildings in Catalogue 431 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the north-east quarter 319 Silver 431 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The cist burial and apsidal building 321 Copper alloy 432 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Contexts: warbands, chieftains and churches 322 Ironwork 457 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Settlement patterns in the 5th to 6th centuries: Lead 466 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . central places, road networks and Bone 467 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . farmsteads 325 The intaglios by M Henig 468 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Housesteads in the medieval and modern eras 327 Glass 471 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The medieval period 327 Tile 475 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The early modern period 329 Ceramic objects 475 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Documentary evidence 329 Jet and shale 478 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The farmhouses 330 Stone 480 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The agricultural landscape 333 Stone missiles by W B Griffiths 482 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Gibson tenure – the 18th to early Leather by Q Mould 483 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19th centuries 334 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inclosure and improvement 334 15 The samian ware by B D Dickinson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Settlement during the Gibson era 335 Introduction 488 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Robbing of the Roman structures 337 Abbreviations 488 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Clayton era to the present day 337 The fort 488 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Discussion 488 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Volume 2 The samian potters stamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491 Decorated ware 493 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction to Volume 2 The vicus 496 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Potters’ stamps 496 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 The stonework, brick and tile by D A Welsby Decorated ware 496 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The stonework, querns and large stone objects 339 Appendix 498 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction 339 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Catalogue 339 16 The coarseware by John N Dore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Discussion 349 Introduction 500 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Additional note on architectural stonework Method 500 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . in the fort by P R Hill 357 The format of the report 500 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ceramic tile, brick and stone tile 358 Catalogue 501 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The imbrices 358 Bowls and dishes 501 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Flat tiles and brick 358 Castor boxes 514 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Box tiles 358 Jars 514 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The tegulae 358 Mortaria 528 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stamped tiles 361 Stamped mortaria by K F Hartley 532 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stone tile 361 Flagons 533 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii houseprelvol1.qxd 03/08/2009 17:32 Page viii Amphorae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534 Classification of metalworking debris . . . . . . . . . . 579 Beakers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534 Analysis of debris from copper alloy working . . . 581 Analysis of copper alloy scrap/offcuts 581 . . . . . . . 17 The glass vessels by D Allen Analysis of copper alloy waste (droplets) 581 . . . . Discussion 568 Examination and analysis of crucibles 583 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Catalogue 568 Moulds 584 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Coloured and blue-green glass 568 ‘Copper alloy slag’ . . . . . . . . . . . . Colourless glass 571 Production of copper alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . military fittings 586 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 The graffiti by R S O Tomlin Conclusions 587 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Incised on samian 574 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Incised on coarseware 574 21 The worked flint by C Waddington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Catalogue 589 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 The botanical evidence by M van der Veen 576 Discussion 591 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 The metalworking debris by D B Dungworth Bibliography 592 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . and D Starley Introduction 579 Index 604 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii

Housesteads Roman Fort: The Grandest Station: Excavation and Survey at Housesteads, 1954-95, by Charles Daniels, John Gillam, James Crow and Others PDF

666 Pages·2009·58.385 MB·English

by Alan Rushworth

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