Table Of ContentSURVIVING THE IMPACT OF THE EXPERIENCE OF RACISM
ON HEALTH AND WELL-BEING:
AN EXPLORATION OF WOMEN OF AFRICAN ANCESTRY
LIVING IN NOVA SCOTIA
by
Barbara-Ann G. Hamilton-Hinch
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements
for the degree of Doctors of Philosophy
at
Dalhousie University
Halifax, Nova Scotia
December 2015
© Copyright by Barbara-Ann G. Hamilton-Hinch, 2015
DEDICATION
I dedicate this dissertation to all of the women whose blood has been shed and on whose
shoulders I now stand upon. I also dedicate it to all of the women in my life who have
helped shaped me to become the woman I am. To my family, who have been patient (as
much as possible) to see this to the end. To my children, David Anthony and Dylan, who
had to sacrifice having a full-time mom but did their best to understand, and to my other
son Obadiah and my grandchildren, Omari and Cami. To my siblings who constantly
asked, “Are you done yet…?” but remained supportive: Blaine, Bonita, Bettina,
Bernadette. To my nieces, nephews, great nieces, great nephews, and godchildren:
D’Arcy (Shiona (godchild), DeYonte, Ava, May), Tyson, Ninika, Marlo (D’Mari, Ma-
Kya, Olivia, Marlo Jr.), DeAngelo, Mikhala, Nico, Nicole, Alyson, Samantha (godchild),
Leila-Kate (godchild) and Kaylen (godchild), anything is possible with hard work and
dedication. Don’t ever forget the strength that is in you; it comes from your ancestors. To
my mother, Bernice (nee Bundy) McLaughlin you have always been there for me. You
introduced me to a God who has never failed me yet. Without your words of
encouragement, without your helping out with my family, comforting me and just
believing in me this work would never have been finished. To my life partner, David
Hinch, few words can express all that you have done to make this dissertation a reality.
Thank you for just being there through so many late nights and, early mornings and for
helping me cope with the emotional roller coaster I often found myself on! To all my
sisters and brothers of African ancestry…we are a resilient people, we are a strong
people, we are a people of faith, and we make the impossible, possible.
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Table of Contents
LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………………..…vii
ABSTRACT …………………………………………………………………….…viii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS USED………………………………………………ix
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ………………………………………………………...x
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………. 1
1.1 AFRICAN NOVA SCOTIAN WOMEN..……………………………...8
1.2 THE DISSERTATION………………………………………………… 9
1.2.1 Rationale for the Study …………..…………………………..10
1.2.2 Research Statement………………………………………..…10
1.2.3 Scope of the Research.………..…………………………..….11
1.2.4 The Significance of the Study…………..……………………12
1.2.5 Theoretical Lens………………………………………………13
1.3 LOCATION OF SELF IN THE RESEARCH ………………………… 14
1.4 ORGANIZATION OF THE THESIS …………………………………. 16
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW…………………………………………. 18
2.1 DEFINITION AND SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF RACE………… 22
2.2 EXPERIENCES OF EVERYDAY RACISM ………………………... 25
2.3 GENDERED RACISM………………………………………………....30
2.4 THE IMPACT OF RACISM AND GENDER DISCRIMINATION ....36
ON HEALTH AND WELL-BEING
2.5 ADDRESSING EVERYDAY EXPERIENCES OF RACISM………...46
2.6 SUMMARY …………………………………………………………… 51
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CHAPTER 3: CRITICAL RACE THEORY AND ……………………………….....53
BLACK FEMINIST THOUGHT
3.1 CRITICAL RACE THEORY AND ITS HISTORICAL ORIGINS ….....55
3.1.1 Centering Race……………………………………………........61
3.1.2 Experiential Knowledge: Stories and Counter-Stories………...62
3.1.3 Critique of Liberalism……………………………………….....63
3.1.4 Racism as Endemic…………………………………………….64
3.2 LIMITATIONS OF CRITICAL RACE THEORY ……………………...64
3.3 BLACK FEMINIST THOUGHT AND ITS HISTORICAL ORIGINS ...67
3.3.1 Interpretive frameworks…………………………………….... . 71
3.3.2 Epistemological approaches………………………………….. ..73
3.3.3 Significance for Empowerment………………………………...76
3.4 LIMITATIONS OF BLACK FEMINIST THOUGHT…………………..80
3.5 APPICABILITY OF CRT AND BLACK FEMINIST THOUGHT……..81
3.6 SUMMARY …………………………………………………………… ...82
CHAPTER 4 THE METHODS: GROUNDING CRITICAL RACE ……………..…84
THEORY AND BLACK FEMINIST THOUGHT
4.1 THE RACISM VIOLENCE AND HEALTH PROJECT STUDY …........84
4.2 THE USE OF SECONDARY DATA ……………………………………85
4.3 THE DISSERTATION RESEARCH …………………………………. ...88
4.3.1 Purpose of the Study ……………….…………………………...88
4.3.2 The Sample……………………………………………………...88
4.4 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS …………………….………………......89
4.5 DATA ANALYSIS METHODS …………………………………….... ...90
4.5.1 Grounded Theory………………………………………………..90
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4.5.2 Open and Axial coding…………………………………….........90
4.5.3 Theoretical Sensitivity Techniques and Diagramming………….92
4.5.4 Selective Coding: The Storyline .………………………….…….92
4.5.5 Reflective Memos……………………………………..............…93
4.5.6 Theory…………………………………………………………....94
4.6 A LENS OF CRITICAL RACE THEORY AND BLACK………………..95
FEMINIST THOUGHT
CHAPTER 5 TELLING THE STORIES……………………………………………...97
5.1 THE PARTICIPANTS ………………………………………………........97
5.2 THE STORYLINE………………………………………………………...99
5.3 SURVIVING ……………………………………………………………...100
5.3.1 Corporeal Memory ……………………………………………...101
5.3.2 Social Code ……………………………………………………...102
5.3.3 Social Institutional Memory …………………………….........…103
5.3.3.1 The Church………………………………………….…104
5.3.3.2 Family…………………………………………….....…107
5.3.3.3 Celebrations…………………………………………....110
5.4 SILENCE ………………………………………………………………....113
5.4.1 Being Silenced…………………………………………….......…114
5.4.2 The Effects of Being Silenced……………………………........…118
5.5 BECOMING AWARE …………………………………........................….124
5.5.1 Consciousness Raising…………………………...................... ….125
5.5.2 Silencing………………………………………………………….127
5.6 REMAKING SELF AND THE COMMUNITY.…………………………..129
5.6.1 Transformation………………………………………….......... ….130
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5.6.2 Advocates for Change………………………………............... .....133
5. 7 SUMMARY ………………………………………………………………137
CHAPTER 6: DISCUSSION…………………………………………………......... …140
6.1 A STORY OF SURVIVAL ……………………………………………….141
6.2 THE KEEPERS OF MEMORY ………………….…………………… …142
6.3 SILENCED …………………………………………………….……….....144
6.4 THE AWAKENING……………………………………………………….145
6.5 POWER AND RESISTANCE ………………………………………… ….146
6.6 RACE AND GENDER-DON’T SPEAK……………….……………...…..148
6.7 HEALTH AND WELL-BEING …………………………………………...150
6.8 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR HEALTH PROMOTION ………………...153
POLICIES AND INTERVENTIONS
6.9 SUMMARY …………………………………………………………… ….158
CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION…………………………………………………......….160
7.1 LIMITATIONS ………………………………………….……………..….162
7.2 WHAT NOW? THE NEXT STEPS …………………………………... ….165
7.3 DISSEMINATION PLANS.……………………………………….………167
7.4 EPILOGUE………………………………………………………………...170
REFERENCES …………………………………………………………………….….171
APPENDIX A EIGHT GENERATION FAN CHART ……………………….199
APPENDIX B INTERVIEW GUIDE …………........................................... ….200
APPENDIX C RECRUITMENT LETTER....................................................….210
APPENDIX D LETTER OF PERMISSION FROM DR. WANDA…………...212
THOMAS BERNARD
APPENDIX E ORIGINAL CONSENT FORM …………………………...….214
APPENDIX F CONCEPT DIAGRAM …………………………………....…217
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 The main categories……………………………….…………………………99
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ABSTRACT
A paucity of research is available about the impact of racism on the health and well-being of women of
African ancestry who are living in Nova Scotia. The purpose of this research was to contribute to that
lacuna. This dissertation examines the perseverance and determination of women of African ancestry,
living in Nova Scotia, who are surviving racism and the impact this has had on their health and well-
being. The participants for this research were a subset of 20 women of African ancestry living in Nova
Scotia, who had participated in qualitative interviews in the five-year Canadian Racism Violence and
Health Project (2003-2008). This Project was a five-year action research study funded by the Canadian
Institutes of Health Research: Institute of Gender and Health. These women had been identified as
leaders from the Health, Education, Justice, Faith and Social Services sectors. The 20 transcripts from
this project that met the inclusion criteria were analyzed (secondary data) using Grounded Theory as a
method of analysis, with Critical Race Theory and Black Feminist Thought as the research lens. Critical
Race Theory requires that racism is central to any research, and Black Feminist thought gives voice to
the Black Women in this study and the role that gender may play in their experiences. The results
showed that racism does impact the health and well-being of African Nova Scotian women as evidenced
in the emergent story line of survival and analytical categories of surviving, silence, becoming aware,
and restructuring self and the community. These categories told an important story mapping the past, the
present, and an anticipated future. The women spoke of being treated as being invisible, being the
subject of micro-aggressions, and becoming hyper-vigilant as a result of everyday racism. The counter-
stories of the lived experiences of these 20 women are testimonies for others who are surviving racism.
This research presents strategies for coping with everyday racism, and makes recommendations for
health promotion policies and procedures that could be of benefit to other marginalized populations.
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS USED
CACE………………………………. Council on African Canadian Education
CAYG……………………………… Cultural Awareness Youth Group of Nova Scotia
CCHS……………………………..... Canadian Community Health Survey
CIHI………………………………... Canadian Institute of Health Information
CIHR……………………………….. Canadian Institutes of Health Research
CRT………………………………… Critical Race Theory
LGBTQ…………………………….. Lesbian Gay Bi-Sexual Transgendered Queer
RaLES……………………………… Racism and Life Experience Scales
RVH……………………………….. Racism Violence and Health Project
U.S…………………………………. United States
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It is with heartfelt thanks that I write this acknowledgement. Knowing that all
things are possible if we trust in our Creator, the Lord Jesus Christ. My mantra
throughout this process was that if [S]He brought me to this, [S]He will bring me through
this. I thank the spirit of my father Norman A.D. Hamilton, and my brother, Darrell, who
was present during this journey, and all my ancestors. I am reminded daily of your
strength and sacrifices. Each word I wrote validated your existence, from Mother Africa
to Nova Scotia. To my Church family of the Beechville Baptist Church who prayed with
me and supported me, thank-you. To my extended family and theirs, the ones who kept
me sane and made sure we took time for each other through vacations and family time
together: Charles, Darcel, Alonzo, Cathy, Chris, and Damien, thanks for helping me take
time for the things that really matter–family and friends.
To my Dalhousie University family, the School of Health and Human Performance,
especially the Recreation and Leisure Studies Department, your words of encouragement,
your understanding when I forgot or didn’t make meetings, picking me up when I was
discouraged, sharing your own journey with me along the way and just being
inspirational, thank you. To Fred, the humble leader of our school who always showed so
much genuine care for my well-being and was willing to do whatever he could to support
me, thank you. Shirley, Jane and Cheryl for just always listening to my hard days, thank
you. To my office mates Daniel, Fenton, Jerry, and Karen who really got to know me
well. Thank you Jerry for your mentoring, being a constant in my academic career since
my masters, providing advice, encouragement, support and “lock-ins” and Karen for
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Description:first Black collective of Nova Scotians and Maritimers (Hamilton, 1994; Pachai, 1987) choose. Collins (2000a, b) argues that some Black women have certain .. Surviving, Silence, Becoming Aware and Remaking Selves and the.
