Table Of ContentFrench Writers and their Society
1715-1800
By the same author
Voltaire
Pierre Bayle and Voltaire
Voltaire: A Biography
Editions of Marivaux, Les Fausses Corifidences
Voltaire, Zadig and Other Tales
Leibniz-Arnauld Correspondence (with translation)
French Writers and
their Society
1715-1800
Haydn Mason
ToA.M.R.
© Haydn Mason 1982
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1982
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
without permission
First published 1982 by
THE MACMILLAN PRESS LTD
London and Basingstoke
Companies and representatives
throughout the world
ISBN 978-1-349-04662-1 ISBN 978-1-349-04660-7 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-04660-7
Contents
Introduction 1
PART I GENERAL MATTERS
1 Politics and Society 9
2 The Writer and His Audience 36
PART II CASE HISTORIES
1 Aristocratic Reform Under the Regency: Montesquieu
(1689-1755) 59
Lettres persanes ( 17 21)
2 ThelndividualistApproach: Marivaux (1688-1763) 74
Lettres sur les habitants de Paris ( 17 1 7-18)
La Double Inconstance ( 17 23)
Le Prince travesti ( 17 24)
L 'lie des esclaves ( 1725)
L'lle de la raison (1727)
3 Money and the Establishment: Prevost (1697-1763) 90
Manon Lescaut ( 1731)
4 Luxury in a Secular Civilisation: Voltaire ( 1694-1778) 105
Lettres philosophiques ( 17 3 4)
Le Mondain ( 1736)
Difense du Mondain (1737)
5 The Rise ofTechnology: L'Enryclopidie (1751-72) 112
The Planches
6 Genevan Theatre and the Middle Classes: Jean-
Jacques Rousseau (1712-78) 128
a
Lettre d'Alembert ( 17 5 8)
7 Commerce, Class-distinction and Realist Drama:
Sedaine (1719-97) 146
Le Philosophe sans le savoir ( 1765)
Vl Contents
8 Crime and Punishment: Voltaire ( 1694-1 778) 168
Commentaire sur le livre des de/its et des peines (1766)
9 The Development of Biological Science: Diderot
(1713-84) 182
Le Reve de d'Alembert (1769)
10 ARedHerring?Laclos(1741-1803) 197
Les Liaisons dangereuses ( 1782)
11 Universal Education: Condorcet ( 1743-94) 209
Rapport sur /'instruction publique ( 1792)
12 Exiles from the Revolution: Senac de Meilhan
(1734-1803) 220
L'Emigre (1797)
13 Popular Reading Tastes 232
14 TheWayForward:MadamedeStaei(1766-1817) 239
De Ia litterature ( 1800)
Select Bibliography 246
Index 251
Introduction
The basic assumption underlying this book is very simple: litera
ture does not arise in a vacuum. Like every other human activity,
it is 'in situation', however much it may ultimately transcend
that condition in its final form. There is of course nothing new
about this approach, and if it needs justification afresh these
days, the reason lies to some extent in the harm which has been
done by abusing it so often in the past. Taine's brilliant but
excessive insistence upon 'race', 'milieu' and 'moment' in the for
mation of the writer has done as much damage to literary criti
cism as the Marxist orthodoxy that the class struggle will
illuminate all. It is hardly surprising that many a critic, horrified
by explanations that explain nothing or, worse, deform the liter
ary work completely, has reacted by asserting that the text is
supreme and all extrinsic considerations irrelevant. But this
approach, while not without validity on particular occasions,
cannot serve as a complete answer. It makes for an increasingly
esoteric cult, a purism which must remain wholly theoretical and
sterile on many of the larger questions we may ask ourselves
about literature. To study, say, the collocation of images in
Candide or Le Neveu de Rameau may not require much reference
outside the works themselves (though the critic might be unwise
in choosing to ignore whether Voltaire or Diderot use similar
imagery in, for example, their correspondence of the same
period). But to attempt any discussion on the general signifi
cance of these works would be foolish if one is not prepared to
consult all the information available-which involves one in Vol
taire's commercial activities in shipping, Diderot's other com
ments on the role of genius in society, and much else besides.
There will still be an enigma at the end of it all, great literature
being by its nature ambiguous and susceptible of diverse in
terpretations; but at least one may delimit the area of that ambi
guity, confirm or deny specific details of fact and circumstances,
2 French Writers and their Society
and then arrive at the rich task of critical evaluation with much
spare ballast jettisoned. Though his concern was somewhat dif
ferent from ours, Daniel Mornet summed up the situation with
his usual lucidity and commonsense: 'L'histoire complete de Ia
pensee et du gout permet de tracer avec beaucoup plus de pre
a
cision le cercle l'interieur duquel il faut seulement chercher le
secret de son genie' .1 Purely textual literary criticism, when it
poses as the whole discipline rather than a part of it, contributes
to that '"balkanization" of knowledge and culture' against
which Malcolm Bradbury has registered protest. As he rightly
argues, literature 'coheres, structures and illuminates' many of
society's most profound meanings.2 Literature and sociology
have much to gain from one another, and this interdisciplinary
study is but the new form, in a more rigorous mode, of an old
subject.
What then are the questions we must ask in such a study of
literature and society? First of all, we must delineate the writer's
social context. We must define his background, education, train
ing, occupation; we must find out how he was placed financially
and how dependent he was on the social establishment ofhis day.
Such questions broaden out into fundamental considerations of
the class structure, the educational institutions, the economics of
patronage (which implicitly, and often in the eighteenth century
explicitly, involves censorship). How are books produced and
distributed and what do they cost? Who pays? What is the status
of the writing profession? How does all this affect the social affili
ation and ideology of the writer?
A second series of questions, closely related to the first, con
cerns the writer's audience. As Sartre put it in his famous essay
Qu'est-ce que la littirature?: 'Pour qui ecrit-on?' The extent and
nature of the reading public are closely bound up with education
and literacy, particularly in an earlier period like the eighteenth
century. Who constitutes the cultured class? Is it a unity or frag
mented into subgroups? What are the means available by which
authors reach their readers, either directly or by general pub
licity of their works and ideas? Here we need to consider the
various roles of eighteenth-century media: not only books but
theatre, cafes, salons, newspapers and periodicals. The question
of censorship is of course most pertinent here, the relationship
between works that were officially (or unofficially) approved and
those that circulated being a highly complex one. The signifi-
Introduction 3
cance of cares and salons is harder still to establish, their contri
bution being essentially an oral and ephemeral one; but it must
not be ignored.
All this needs to be related to the general manifestations of the
time: the growth of scientific and technological change, the strug
gles between the monarchy and the Parlements, the foundering of
the State finances, the inequities of taxation, the overwhelmingly
rural nature of France in the eighteenth century, and so on.
Finally, and not least, we must consider the social content,
purpose and influence of these literary documents. How do works
of literature order and present the social scene, and to what
effect? Here it needs to be said with the greatest firmness that the
creative role of literature must never be forgotten. To study
literature as no more than a response to society is already to
throw in one's lot with sociology at the expense of criticism. The
present writer, however imperfectly, will hope to convey some
thing of his conviction that literature, as one of man's richest pur
suits, can never be reducible to other phenomena or totally
explained by reference to them. The task of studying literature in
a social context would for him be meaningless if that literature
were lacking in its own unique qualities. The nature of this study
carries with it a certain predisposition to examine society first
and literature second; it is hoped that the result has not been to
demote the latter. In line with these views, the literature that
mainly figures here is serious and complex in thought and form.
This emphasis is however not exclusive. A general study that
omitted all reference to more popular literature in this period
would be misleading, and so it is included, albeit briefly. The tra
ditional mass literature and the new mass journalism are them
selves fascinating topics of enquiry, and they would have
occupied a more important position if this book were concerned
with cultural sociology rather than literature in its social setting.
The foregoing questions would be formidable enough if we
were dealing with a static model. In fact, France between 1715
and 1800 was in a process of ceaseless and ever greater change
and turmoil; and the last decade is one of revolution and in
numerable obscure confusions to which a whole library of books
has been exclusively devoted. Not only must the basic points be
raised, they must be raised repeatedly at each important land
mark. The task ideally requires the wisdom of Solomon and the
patience of Sisyphus.
