EXPLORING THE ADOPTION OF INTELLIGENCE-LED POLICING By Jeremy Gibson Carter A ...

354 Pages·2011·0.89 MB·English

by  Jeremy Carter

POLICING INNOVATION:
EXPLORING THE ADOPTION OF INTELLIGENCE-LED POLICING

By

Jeremy Gibson Carter

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Criminal Justice

2011
ABSTRACT

POLICING INNOVATION:
EXPLORING THE ADOPTION OF INTELLIGENCE-LED POLICING

By

Jeremy Gibson Carter

All levels of law enforcement are currently experiencing a shift in policing
paradigms from an informal, communication-based approach in community policing to a
more formal and analytic-based approach of intelligence-led policing. As a result of the
attacks of September 11, 2001, the 9/11 Commission Report, and gaining momentum in
approximately 2004, intelligence-led policing has emerged so rapidly that little is known
about its conception and application - thus creating difficulties for adoption. With no
quantitative basis for comparison, the current study seeks to explore factors that facilitate
the adoption of intelligence-led policing. The literature on this new policing philosophy
is spare at best; however drawing from community policing and organizational behavior
research a conceptual framework for exploring intelligence-led policing will be
presented. This framework includes an exploration of organizational diffusion, structure,
context, and performance evaluation as anticipated facilitators of both an operationalized
measure as well as a self-reported measure of intelligence-led policing adoption. Data
used for this study are from a larger project that consists of 272 state, local, and tribal law
enforcement agencies in the United States.
For the operationalized measure of intelligence-led policing adoption, results
indicate agencies that are aware of potential civil liability are more likely to have
successful adoption and achieve adoption primarily through informal communications
with peer law enforcement agencies. From a structural perspective, agencies that are
guided by more formal policies and have an intelligence unit indicate more positive
adoption. In terms of organization context, commitment to the intelligence-led policing
philosophy and the ability of intelligence personnel to carry out a variety of tasks increase
adoption. Self-reported adoption of intelligence-led policing was predicted by the
agency’s familiarity with the intelligence-led policing concept, informal communication
with peer law enforcement agencies, training, and commitment. When compared,
agencies’ self-reported perception of adopting intelligence-led policing differs from an
index measurement of intelligence-led policing adoption. Lastly, agencies that employ
higher quality performance evaluation methods indicate more successful adoption. The
findings establish an empirical foundation for future research on law enforcement
intelligence as well as identify organizational factors that contribute to successful
adoption of intelligence-led policing.
Copyright by
JEREMY GIBSON CARTER
2011
To my parents,
who instilled the importance of higher education,
both in the classroom and in life…I love you both

to my wife Robyn,
who gave me unwavering support and compassion,
my best friend…to say that I love you is an understatement of the truth

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

My path through Michigan State University was crossed by many great people
who have influenced me over the span of my educational career and to thank them all
here would be a formidable task. In no way does the exclusion of anyone from these
pages diminish the influence you have all had on me.
I would like to thank Dr. Steve Chermak, Dr. John Hudzik, and Dr. Michael Rip
for their professional and personal support throughout this experience. Each of you has
provided me with a wealth of knowledge that pertains not only to both my research and
career, but life as well. I would like to thank Dr. Edmund McGarrell, for serving as my
chairperson throughout my doctoral candidacy. Your attention to the details of my work,
career, and life were unfathomable given the demands of your time as Director of our
School. I look forward to a professional and personal relationship with each of you as I
continue to develop my career.
A special thanks goes out to Dr. Christopher Melde to whom lost many
productive hours to my knocks on his door…some of which were even criminal justice
related. I would like to thank my peers in the School of Criminal Justice for being more
than just that, for being friends. Special thanks go to Dr. Eric Grommon for being a close
friend, sounding board, and conspirator – our years together seemed long, but I still don’t
know where they went.
To my mother Karen, father David, and sisters Hilary and Lauren, words cannot
say how thankful I am to have you all and everything you have done for me – I love you
all. My parents instilled in me an honest work ethic, personal pride, and respect for
everyone - principles that guide me every day. Special thanks go out to my father for not
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only being the best in that role, but for also walking the fine line between parent and
colleague. I would never be where I am today without the love, guidance, and knowledge
you have given me. I did not forget about the brothers-in-law, Joseph and Ricardo – you
each have provided me with support, laughter, and more money in my pockets after our
poker games.
Finally, to my loving and patient wife Robyn… I do not even know where to
begin. At times you were a widow to this degree, sacrificing in order to give me the best
chance of success and making life easier for me, but not necessarily for yourself. You
took on extra responsibilities so that I could focus on my work. You settled for some not-
so-fun Friday and Saturday nights, all with a smile on your face. I look forward to
spending the next many years making up for those lost nights together. I cannot say
“thank you” or “I love you” enough to begin to convey how sincerely I mean them both.
To everyone…thank you.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ xii

LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................... xiv

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION ...............................................................................................................1
Statement of the Problem ...............................................................................................3
Purpose of the Study ......................................................................................................6
Definition of Terms......................................................................................................13
What to Expect .............................................................................................................14

CHAPTER TWO
INTELLIGENCE-LED POLICING ..................................................................................17
Intelligence-Led Policing .............................................................................................17
A Brief Note: National Security Intelligence vs.
Law Enforcement Intelligence ............................................................................18
Intelligence-Led Policing in the United Kingdom ..............................................19
Intelligence-Led Policing Before September 11, 2011 .......................................24
Intelligence-Led Policing After September 11, 2001 .........................................28
Models of Intelligence-Led Policing ..................................................................30
A Brief Note on the Adoption of Intelligence-Led Policing ...............................46

CHAPTER THREE
LITERATURE REVIEW ..................................................................................................50
Organizational Frameworks and Policing ....................................................................51
Systems Perspectives and Policing .....................................................................51
Organizational Knowledge and Policing ............................................................55
Organizational Communication and Policing .....................................................60
Organizational Innovation ...........................................................................................62
Types of Innovation ...........................................................................................63
Innovation in Policing .........................................................................................66
Intelligence-Led Policing as Innovation ............................................................71
Organizational Characteristics and Policing ................................................................74
Organizational Structure .....................................................................................75
Organizational Context .......................................................................................80
Performance Evaluation ......................................................................................87
Conclusions ..................................................................................................................93

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CHAPTER FOUR
METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................96
MSU Intelligence Toolbox Training Program .............................................................96
The Original Evaluation Project ..................................................................................97
Survey Instrument and Data Collection ..............................................................98
A Brief Note on Survey Population ..................................................................102
Mixed Methods Research Component ..............................................................103
Case Study Interviews.......................................................................................108
Mixed Methods for Intelligence-Led Policing Adoption ..................................124
Case Studies and Information Collection .........................................................110
Current Study .............................................................................................................113
Survey Response Rate.......................................................................................114
A Note on Missing Data ...................................................................................118
Research Questions ....................................................................................................120
Measurement .............................................................................................................126
Differential Indexes ..........................................................................................127
Intelligence-Led Policing Adoption Dependent Variables ...............................128
Diffusion Independent Variables ......................................................................132
Organizational Structure and Context Independent Variables ..........................137
Performance Evaluation Independent Variables ...............................................149
Analytic Strategy .......................................................................................................151

CHAPTER FIVE
ANALYSIS AND RESULTS ..........................................................................................153
Descriptive and Bivariate Statistics ...........................................................................153
Analysis of Research Question 1 ...............................................................................161
Partial Model of Diffusion Types .....................................................................161
Summary of Research Question 1 Results ........................................................162
Analysis of Research Question 2 ...............................................................................164
Partial Model of Organizational Structure and Context ...................................164
Summary of Research Question 2 Results ........................................................167
Analysis of Research Question 3 ...............................................................................170
Full Model of Organizational Intelligence-Led Policing Adoption Index ........170
Summary of Research Question 3 Results ........................................................173
Analysis of Research Question 4 ...............................................................................175
Models of Analyst Performance Evaluation .....................................................175
Summary of Research Question 4 Results ........................................................179
Analysis of Research Question 5 ...............................................................................179
Full Model of Self-Reported Intelligence-Led Policing Adoption ...................179
Summary of Research Question 5 Results ........................................................183

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CHAPTER SIX
CASE STUDY: FLORIDA FUSION CENTER..............................................................186
Introduction ................................................................................................................186
The Florida Fusion Center .........................................................................................187
Structure of Law Enforcement Intelligence in Florida ..............................................188
The Office of Statewide Intelligence and the Florida Fusion Center ...............188
Seven Regional Fusion Centers ........................................................................189
The Difference between the Florida Fusion Center and the
Office of Statewide Intelligence .......................................................................191
Information Sharing: Local Law Enforcement,
Non-Law Enforcement Organizations, and Federal Agencies ..................................194
Gap Analysis .....................................................................................................194
Intelligence Liaison Officers (ILOs) .................................................................196
Threat Assessments, Intelligence Products, and Dissemination .......................200
Relationships with the Private Sector ...............................................................203
Intelligence Analysts: Performance Evaluation and Standards .................................204
Analysts at the Florida Department of Law Enforcement ...............................204
Analyst Training ..............................................................................................205
Analyst Performance Evaluation and Analyst Promotion ................................207
Protecting Citizens’ Civil Rights ...............................................................................209
Summary of Research Question 6 Results .................................................................211

CHAPTER SEVEN
CASE STUDY: SOUTHERN NEVADA COUNTER-TERRORISM CENTER ...........216
Introduction ................................................................................................................216
The Southern Nevada Counter-Terrorism Center .....................................................216
Mission .......................................................................................................................218
Management and Structure .......................................................................................219
Board of Governors ..........................................................................................219
Collections Section ...........................................................................................220
Analysis Section................................................................................................221
Intelligence Requirements Committee ..............................................................221
Quality Assurance Section ...............................................................................223
Direction of SNCTC and Resource Control .....................................................224
Supervision of SNCTC ....................................................................................225
Analyst Environment ........................................................................................226
Law Enforcement and Public-Sector Partnerships ...........................................227
Partnerships with the Private Sector – Suspicious Activity Reporting .............227
Information Sharing and Records Management ........................................................230
Collection .........................................................................................................230
Storage ..............................................................................................................232
Dissemination ...................................................................................................234
Original Documentation - Third Party Prohibition ...........................................235
Approved Methods for Information Dissemination ..........................................236
Public Request for Information .........................................................................237
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