Table Of ContentContents
Agricultural Origins: Old World \ Taylor A. Steeves
Agriculture and Biodiversity \ Deborah Stinner
Agriculture: Why and How Did it Begin? \ David R. Harris
Air Pollutant Interactions with Pests and Pathogens \ Andreas von Tiedemann
Air Pollutants: Effects of Ozone on Crop Yield and Quality \ Håkan Pleijel
Air Pollutants: Interactions with Elevated Carbon Dioxide \ Hans-Joachim Weigel
Air Pollutants: Mode of Action \ Robert L. Heath
Air Pollutants: Responses of Plant Communities \ Andreas Fangmeier
Alternative Feedstocks for Bioprocessing \ Joseph J. Bozell
Amino Acid and Protein Metabolism \ Estela M. Valle
Aneuploid Mapping in Diploids \ P. K. Gupta
Aneuploid Mapping in Polyploids \ David Stelly
Anoxia Effects on Plant Physiology \ Elena Loreti, Amedeo Alpi, and Pierdomenico Perata
Anther and Microspore Culture and Production of Haploid Plants \ Liliya D. Serazetdinova and Horst Lörz
Arabidopsis thaliana: Characteristics and Annotation of a Model Genome \ Tanya Z. Berardini and Seung Y. Rhee
Arabidopsis Transcription Factors: Genome-wide Comparative Analysis Among Eukaryotes \ José Luis Riechmann
Archaeobotanial Remains: New Dating Methods \ Lawrence Kaplan
Aromatic Plants for the Flavor and Fragrance Industries \ Brian M. Lawrence
Ascorbic Acid: An Essential Micronutrient Provided by Plants \ Patricia L. Conklin
ATP and NADPH \ Wayne Frasch
B Chromosomes \ R. Neil Jones
Bacterial Attachment to Leaves \ Martin Romantschuk
Bacterial Blight of Rice \ Bart Cottyn and Tom Mew
Bacterial Pathogens: Detection and Identification Methods \ Jan M. van der Wolf and Cor D. Schoen
Bacterial Pathogens: Early Interactions with Host Plants \ Gwyn A. Beattie
Bacterial Products Important for Plant Disease: Cell-Surface Components \ P. K. Chakrabarty, A. Chatterjee, W. Gassmann, and
A. K. Chatterjee
Bacterial Products Important for Plant Disease: Diffusable Metabolites as Regulatory Signals \ P. K. Chakrabarty, A. Chatterjee,
W. Gassmann, and A. K. Chatterjee
Bacterial Products Important for Plant Disease: Extracellular Enzymes \ P. K. Chakrabarty, A. Chatterjee, W. Gassmann, and A.
K. Chatterjee
Bacterial Products Important for Plant Disease: Toxins and Growth Factors \ P. K. Chakrabarty, W. Gassmann, A. Chatterjee,
and A. K. Chatterjee
Bacterial Soft Rots: Erwinia as a Paradigm \ Holly Slater, Martin Welch, and George Salmond
Bacterial Survival and Dissemination in Insects \ Alexander H. Purcell
Bacterial Survival and Dissemination in Natural Environments \ Steven Lindow
Bacterial Survival and Dissemination in Seeds and Planting Material \ Diane A. Cuppels
Bacterial Survival Strategies \ Cindy E. Morris and Christine M. H. Riffaud
Bacteria-Plant Host Specificity Determinants \ Alan Vivian
Beneficial Phytoplasma Infection: Free Branching of Poinsettia \ Ing-Ming Lee, Michael J. Klopmeyer, and Dawn E. Gundersen-
Rindal
Biennial Crops \ Irwin L. Goldman
Bioinformatics \ Michael T. Clegg and Peter L. Morrell
Biological Control in the Phyllosphere \ John H. Andrews
Biological Control of Nematodes \ Brian R. Kerry
Biological Control of Oomycetes and Fungal Pathogens \ Eric B. Nelson
Biological Control of Weeds \ Linda M. Wilson and Mark Schwarzlaender
Biosafety Applications in the Plant Sciences: Expanding Notions About \ Emily E. Pullins
Biosafety Approaches to Transgenic Crop Plant Gene Flow \ Terrie Klinger
Biosafety Considerations for Transgenic Insecticidal Plants: Non-Target Herbivores, Detritivores, and Pollinators \ J. E. Losey
and John J. Obrycki and R. A. Hufbauer
Biosafety Considerations for Transgenic Insecticidal Plants: Non-Target Predators and Parasitoids \ J. E. Losey, John J. Ob-
rycki, and R. A. Hufbauer
Biosafety Programs for Genetically Engineered Plants: An Adaptive Approach \ Anne R. Kapuscinski and Emily E. Pullins
Biosafety Science: Overview of Plant Risk Issues \ L. L. Wolfenbarger and Paul R. Phifer
Boron \ Patrick H. Brown
Breeding Biennial Crops \ Irwin L. Goldman
Breeding Clones \ Rodomiro Ortiz
Breeding for Durable Resistance \ Raoul A. Robinson
Breeding for Nutritional Quality \ Brian J. Just and Philipp W. Simon
Breeding for Subsistence Agriculture: Developing Technologies for Resource-Poor Farmers \ Shivaji Pandey
Breeding Hybrids \ Arnel R. Hallauer
Breeding Hybrids and Marker-Assisted Selection \ Alain Charcosset
Breeding Plants and Heterosis \ Kendall R. Lamkey and Jode W. Edwards
Breeding Plants with Transgenes \ Duska Stojsin and Carl F. Behr
Breeding Pure Line Cultivars \ P. Stephen Baenziger, Mustafa Erayman, Hikmet Budak, and B. Todd Campbell
Breeding Self-Pollinated Crops through Marker-Assisted Selection \ Brian W. Diers
Breeding Synthetic Cultivars \ Steven E. Smith
Breeding Using Doubled Haploids \ Richard E. Veilleux
Breeding Widely Adapted Cultivars: Examples from Maize \ A. Forrest Troyer
Breeding: Choice of Parents \ John W. Dudley
Breeding: Evolutionary Aspects \ Irwin L. Goldman
Breeding: Genotype by Environment Interaction \ Manjit S. Kang
Breeding: Incorporation of Exotic Germplasm \ James B. Holland
Breeding: Mating Designs \ Charles W. Stuber
Breeding: Participatory Approaches \ J. R. Witcombe
Breeding: Recurrent Selection and Gain from Selection \ James G. Coors
Breeding: The Backcross Method \ William F. Tracy
C3 Photosynthesis to Crassulacean Acid Metabolism Shift in Mesembryanthenum Crystallinum: A Stress Tolerance Mecha-
nism\ John C. Cushman
Calvin Cycle Intermediates \ Richard G. Jensen
Canola: Applications in High Performance Lubricants \ Duane L. Johnson
Carotenoids in Photosynthesis \ Britta Förster and Barry J. Pogson
Cellular Water Relations \ George C. Papageorgiou
Cereal Sprouting \ C. W. Wrigley
Chemical Weed Control \ Don W. Morishita
Chlorophylls \ Robert D. Willows
Chloroplast Genomes: Architecture of Ancestors \ Klaus-Viktor Kowallik
Chromosome Banding \ Takashi R. Endo
Chromosome Manipulation and Crop Improvement \ Adam J. Lukaszewski
Chromosome Rearrangements \ Tomás Naranjo
Chromosome Structure and Evolution \ Ingo Schubert and Andreas Houben
Circadian Clock in Plants \ C. Robertson McClung
Citrus Canker \ Rui Pereira Leite Junior
Classification and Identification of Nematodes \ James G. Baldwin
Classification and Nomenclature of Plant Pathogenic Bacteria \ John Young
Coevolution of Insects and Plants \ M. Deane Bowers
Columbian Exchange: The Role of Analog Crops in the Adoption and Dissemination of Exotic Cultigens \ David E. Williams
Commercial Micropropagation \ M. C. Gopinathan
Competition: Responses to Shade by Neighbors \ Carlos L. Ballaré
Control of Plant Virus Diseases \ Jitender S. Yadav, Roger N. Beachy, and Claude M. Fauquet
Crop Domestication in Africa \ Rémy S. Pasquet
Crop Domestication in China \ Tracey Lie-Dan Lu
Crop Domestication in Mesoamerica \ A. Delgado-Salinas and J. Caballero and A. Casas
Crop Domestication in Prehistoric Eastern North America \ David L. Asch and John P. Hart
Crop Domestication in Southeast Asia \ Victor Paz and Ofer Bar-Yosef
Crop Domestication in the American Tropics: Phytolith Analyses \ Dolores R. Piperno
Crop Domestication in the American Tropics: Starch Grain Analyses \ Dolores R. Piperno and Irene Holst
Crop Domestication in the Andes and Lowland South America \ Barbara Pickersgill
Crop Domestication: Fate of Genetic Diversity \ Gideon Ladizinsky
Crop Domestication: Founder Crops \ Daniel Zohary
Crop Domestication: Role of Unconscious Selection \ Daniel Zohary
Crop Improvement: Broadening the Genetic Base for \ Toby Hodgkin
Crop Responses to Elevated Carbon Dioxide \ Leon Hartwell Allen Jr. and P.V. Vara Prasad
Cropping Systems: Irrigated Continuous Rice Systems of Tropical and Subtropical Asia \ Achim Dobermann and Kenneth G.
Cassman
Cropping Systems: Irrigated Rice and Wheat of the Indo-gangetic Plains \ David J. Connor
Cropping Systems: Rain-fed Maize-Soybean Rotations of North America \ Douglas L. Karlen
Cropping Systems: Slash and Burn Cropping Systems of the Tropics \ Ken E. Giller and Cheryl Palm
Cropping Systems: Yield Improvement of Wheat in Temperate Northwestern Europe \ Hubert J. Spiertz
Crops and Environmental Change \ Jørgen E. Olesen
Cross-species and Cross-genera Comparisons in the Grasses \ Ismail M. Dweikat
Crown Gall \ Thomas Burr
Cytogenetics of Apomixis \ Hans de Jong
Drought and Drought Resistance \ Graeme C. Wright and Nageswararao C. Rachaputi
Drought Resistant Ideotypes: Future Technologies and Approaches for the Development of \ Nageswararao C. Rachaputi and
Graeme C. Wright
Echinacea: Uses as a Medicine \ Mario R. Morales
Ecology and Agricultural Sciences \ Jon K. Piper
Ecology: Functions, Patterns, and Evolution \ Fernando Valladares
Economic Impact of Insects \ David Pimentel
Ecophysiology \ Luis Balaguer
Emerging Fungal and Oomycete Plant Pathogens \ John H. Andrews
Endosperm Development \ Philip W. Becraft
Environmental Concerns and Agricultural Policy \ Floor Brouwer
Epigenetic Variation and Phenotypic Diversity \ E. Jean Finnegan and Estelle Jaligot
Evolution of Plant Genome Microstructure \ Ian Bancroft
Ex Situ Conservation of Genetic Resources: Characterization and Validation \ Bert Visser
Ex Situ Evaluation: Core Collections \ Larry D. Robertson
Ex Situ Genetic Resource Conservation: Plantations \ N. Rajanaidu and V. Ramanatha Rao
Exchange of Trace Gases Between Crops and the Atmosphere \ Jürgen Kreuzwieser and Heinz Rennenberg
Exciton Theory \ Su Lin
Farmer Selection and Conservation of Crop Varieties \ Daniela Soleri and David A. Cleveland
Female Gametogenesis \ Jagreet Kaur and Imran Siddiqi
Fire Blight \ John L. Norelli
Fixed-Nitrogen Deficiency: Overcoming by Nodulation \ Michelle R. Lum and Ann M. Hirsch
Floral Induction \ Joe Colasanti
Floral Scent \ Natalia Dudareva
Flow Cytogenetics \ Jaroslav Dolezel, Marie Kubaláková, Jan Vrána, and Jan Bartos
Flower and Fruit Feeding Insects \ Antônio R. Panizzi
Flower Development \ Thomas Jack
Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization \ Yasuhiko Mukai
Fluorescence: A Probe of Photosynthetic Apparatus \ J. Kenneth Hoober
Functional Genomics and Gene Action Knockouts \ Jacqueline Heard
Fungal and Oomycete Plant Pathogens: Cell Biology \ Adrienne R. Hardham
Gene Banks: Utilization in Plant Breeding \ Margaret E. Smith
Gene Expression Modulation in Plants by Sugars in Response to Environmental Changes \ Barry Wobbes and Sjef C. M.
Smeekens
Gene Flow Between Crops and Their Wild Progenitors \ Roberto Papa and Paul Gepts
Gene Silencing: A Defense Mechanism Against Alien Genetic Information \ Peter De Haan
Genetic and Epigenetic Variation Released Upon Polyploidization \ Avraham A. Levy and Moshe Feldman
Genetic Conservation Ex Situ: Botanical Gardens, Arboreta, and Herbaria \ Mary T. Burke
Genetic Conservation of Genomic Resources \ David A. Kudrna and Rod A. Wing
Genetic Conservation of Nonseed Materials \ Charles J. Simon
Genetic Diversity Among Weeds \ Michael J. Christoffers
Genetic Engineering Experiments: Design and Selection of Candidate Genes \ David A. Somers
Genetic Loads \ Ohmi Ohnishi
Genetic Resource Conservation of Seeds \ Florent Engelmann
Genetic Resources of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants from Brazil \ Roberto Fontes Vieira
Genetic Resources: Access, Benefit-Sharing, and Bioprospecting Issues \ Santiago Carrizosa
Genetically Engineered Crops with Resistance Against Insects \ Johnie N. Jenkins
Genetically Modified Oil Crops \ Denis J. Murphy
Genome Rearrangements and Survival of Plant Populations to Changes in Environmental Conditions \ Pier Giorgio Cionini
Genome Size \ Michael D. Bennett
Genome Structure and Gene Content in Plant and Protist Mitochondrial DNAs \ Michael W. Gray
Genomic Approaches to Understanding Plant Pathogenic Bacteria \ João C. Setubal and Ana C. R. da Silva
Genomic Imprinting in Plants \ Daphné Autran and Jean-Philippe Vielle-Calzada
Genomics of Fungal Plant Pathogens \ Brett M. Tyler
Germplasm Acquisition \ David M. Spooner and Karen A. Williams
Germplasm Collections: Regeneration in Maintenance \ Linda Pollak
Germplasm Enhancement Through Mutation Techniques \ Karin Nichterlein and Miroslaw Maluszynski
Germplasm Maintenance \ Henry L. Shands
Germplasm: International and National Centers \ Jonathan Robinson and N. Murthi Anishetty
Glycolysis\ Florencio E. Podestá
Herbicide Resistant Crops, Impact of \ Micheal D. K. Owen
Herbicide Resistant Weeds \ Carol Mallory-Smith
Herbicides in the Environment: Fate of \ Kim A. Anderson and Jennifer L. Schaeffer
Herbs, Spices, and Condiments \ Katerina P. Svoboda
Heretosis: Effects of Long Term Selection \ Howie Smith
Human Cholinesterases from Plants for Detoxification \ Tsafrir S. Mor and Hermona Soreq
Hypersensitive Response in Plants \ Ron Mittler
In Situ Conservation for Genetic Diversity: Reserve Designation and Design \ Ayfer Tan and Ahmet Semsettin Tan
In Situ Genetic Resource Conservation: Local Parks and Reserves \ V. Arivudai Nambi and L. R. Gopinath
In Vitro Chromosome Doubling \ V. Sarasan and A. V. Roberts
In Vitro Flowering \ Prakash Lakshmanan and Acram M. Taji
In Vitro Morphogenesis in Plants - Recent Advances \ Gregory C. Phillips
In Vitro Plant Regeneration by Organogenesis \ Janet R. Gorst
In Vitro Pollination and Fertilization \ Acram M. Taji and Jennifer Williams
In Vitro Production of Triploid Plants \ Sant S. Bhojwani
In Vitro Tuberization \ Yasunori Koda
Insect Dietary Needs: Plants as Food for Insects \ Spencer Behmer
Insect Interactions with Other Pests (Weeds, Pathogens, Nematodes) \ Jason Tylianakis, Geoff M. Gurr, and Steve D. Wratten
Insect Life History Strategies: Development and Growth \ Jeffrey C. Miller
Insect Life History Strategies: Reproduction and Survival \ Jeffrey C. Miller
Insect/Host Plant Resistance in Crops \ C. Michael Smith
Insect/Plant Interactions \ Sujaya Rao
Insects as Vectors of Disease Agents \ Alexander H. Purcell and Rodrigo P. P. Almeida
Integrated Pest Management \ Marcos Kogan
Intellectual Property and Plant Science \ Susanne Somersalo and John Dodds
International Treaties Relevant to the Management of Plant Genetic Resources \ David Cooper and N. Murthi Anishetty
Interphase Nucleus, The \ Paul Fransz
Interspecific Hybridization \ D. S. Brar
Isoprenoid Metabolism \ Russell K. Monson and Todd N. Rosenstiel
Larvicidal Proteins from Bacillus thuringiensisin in Soil: Release, Persistence, and Effects \ G. Stotzky
Late Blight \ Francine Govers and Maita Latijnhouwers
Leaf Cuticle \ Gwyn A. Beattie
Leaf Structure \ Vincent P. Gutschick and Lou Ellen Kay
Leaf Surface Sugars \ Johan Leveau
Leaves and Canopies: Physical Environment \ George W. Sundin and Cindy E. Morris
Leaves and the Effects of Elevated Carbon Dioxide Levels \ Stephen A. Prior, Seth G. Pritchard, and G. Brett Runion
Legumes: Nutraceutical and Pharmaceutical Uses \ J. Bradley Morris
Lesquerella Potential for Commercialization \ David A. Dierig, Michael A. Foster, Terry A. Isbell, and Dennis T. Ray
Light-Harvesting Complexes \ Laura Eggink
Lipid Metabolism \ Jean-Claude Kader
Long-Term Selection for Biochemical Traits \ John W. Dudley
Long-Term Selection: Repeatability of Response in Finite Populations \ Bruce Walsh
Male Gametogenesis \ David Honys and David Twell
Mammalian Cytokines Produced in Plants \ Chihiro Sugimoto and Takeshi Matsumura
Management of Bacterial Diseases of Plants: Biological Control \ Mark Wilson
Management of Bacterial Diseases: Chemical Methods \ Donald L. Hopkins
Management of Bacterial Diseases: Regulatory Aspects \ Jaap D. Janse
Management of Diseases in Seed Crops \ Lindsey J. du Toit
Management of Fungal and Oomycete Diseases: Fruit Crops \ Patricia S. McManus
Management of Fungal and Oomycete Diseases: Turfgrass \ Michael J. Boehm, Joseph W. Rimelspach, and Samantha L. Thomas
Management of Fungal and Oomycete Diseases: Vegetable Crops \ Debra Ann Inglis
Management of Nematode Diseases: Options \ Gregory L. Tylka
Marigold Flower: Industrial Applications \ James N. BeMiller
Mass Spectrometry For Identifying Proteins, Protein Modifications, And Protein Interactions In Plants \ Michael Fromm
Mechanisms of Infection: Imperfect Fungi \ Gyungsoon Park and Jin-Rong Xu
Mechanisms of Infection: Oomycetes \ Paul R. J. Birch and David E. L. Cooke
Mechanisms of Infection: Rusts \ Matthias Hahn
Medical Molecular Pharming: Therapeutic Recombinant Antibodies, Biopharmaceuticals and Edible Vaccines in Transgenic
Plants Engineered via the Chloroplast Genome \ Henry Daniell
Meiosis\ Wojciech P. Pawlowski, Lisa C. Harper, and W. Zacheus Cande
Metabolic Engineering of the Plant Phenylpropanoid Pathway \ Oliver Yu
Metabolism, Primary: Engineering Pathways \ Alberto A. Iglesias
Metabolism, Secondary: Engineering Pathways of \ David Rhodes, Gregory J. Peel, and Natalia Dudareva
Milkweed: Commercial Applications \ Herbert D. Knudsen
Minor Nutrients \ Wolfgang Schmidt
Mitochondrial Respiration \ Agepati S. Raghavendra
Mitosis\ Dénes Dudits and Attila Fehér
Molecular Analysis of Chromosome Landmarks \ James A. Birchler, Juan M. Vega, and Akio Kato
Molecular Biology Applied to Weed Science \ Patrick J. Tranel and Federico Trucco
Molecular Evolution \ Michael T. Clegg
Molecular Farming in Plants: Technology Platforms \ Rainer Fischer, Neil J. Emans, Richard M. Twyman, and Stefan Schillberg
Molecular Integrated Cytogenetic Mapping \ Jiming Jiang
Molecular Technologies and Their Role Maintaining and Utilizing Genetic Resources \ Amanda J. Garris, Alexandra M. Casa, and
Stephen Kresovich
Mutational Processes \ Michael T. Clegg and Peter L. Morrell
Mutualisms in Plant-Insect Interactions \ W. P. Stephen
Mycorrhizal Evolution \ David M. Wilkinson
Mycorrhizal Symbioses \ Roger T. Koide
Mycotoxins Produced by Plant Pathogenic Fungi \ K. Thirumala-Devi and Nancy Keller
Natural Rubber \ Dennis T. Ray
Nematode Biology, Morphology, and Physiology \ Stephen A. Lewis, David J. Chitwood, and Edward C. McGawley
Nematode Feeding Strategies \ Richard S. Hussey
Nematode Infestations: Assessment \ K. R. Barker and Ke Dong
Nematode Parasitism Genes \ Eric L. Davis
Nematode Population Dynamics \ Robert McSorley
Nematode Problems: Most Prevalent \ Larry Duncan
Nematodes and Host Resistance \ Philip A. Roberts
Nematodes: Ecology \ Howard Ferris
New Industrial Crops in Europe \ Jan E. G. Van Dam and Wolter Elbersen
New Secondary Metabolites: Potential Evolution \ David R. Gang
Nitrogen \ Peter J. Lea
Nonchemical Weed Control: New Directions \ Bo Melander
Non-Infectious Seed Disorders \ H. K. Manandhar and S. B. Mathur
Non-wood Plant Fibers: Applications in Pulp and Papermaking \ Joseph E. Atchison
Nucleic Acids Metabolism \ Hiroshi Ashihara
Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods: Market Innovation \ Nicholas Kalaitzandonakes, James D. Kaufman, and Lucy Zakharova
Oomycete-Plant Interactions: Current Issues in \ Mark Gijzen
Organic Agriculture as a Form of Sustainable Agriculture \ John P. Reganold
Osmotic Adjustment and Osmoregulation \ Neil C. Turner
Oxidative Stress and DNA Modification in Plants \ Alex Levine
Oxygen Production \ Charles F. Yocum
Paper and Pulp: Agro-based Resources for \ George A. White
Parasitic Weeds \ James H. Westwood
Pharmaceutical Overproduction and Purification of Biopharmaceuticals Through His-tagged GUS-fusion Expressions in Chlo-
roplasts \ Vanga Siva Reddy and Sadhu Leelavathi
Pharmaceuticals in Plants \ Kazuhito Fujiyama
Phenylpropanoids \ Kevin M. Davies
Phosphorus\ Carroll P. Vance
Photoacoustics: Listening to Plants \ Shmuel Malkin
Photoperiodism and the Regulation of Flowering \ Isabelle A. Carré
Photoreceptors and Associated Signaling I: Phytochromes \ Karen J. Halliday
Photoreceptors and Associated Signaling II: Cryptochromes \ Chentao Lin
Photoreceptors and Associated Signaling III: Phototropins \ Bethany Stone and Emmanuel Liscum
Photoreceptors and Associated Signaling IV: UV Receptors \ T. H. Attridge and N. M. Cooley
Photosynthate Partitioning and Transport \ Maria Fabiana Drincovich
Photosynthesis and Stress \ Barbara Demmig-Adams, Volker Ebbert, and William W. Adams III
Photosynthetic Pathways: Scarcity-Driven Evolution \ Stan R. Szarek
Photosystems I and II Structures \ Andrew Webber
Photosystems: Electron Flow Through \ Arlene Haffa
Phyllosphere Microbial Diversity \ Mark J. Bailey, Ian P. Thompson, and Tracey M. Timms-Wilson
Physiology of Crop Yield \ Gustavo Slafer and Roxana Savin
Physiology of Herbivorous Insects \ Cedric Gillott
Phytochemical Diversity of Secondary Metabolites \ Michael Wink
Phytochrome and Cryptochrome Functions in Crop Plants \ Jim Weller
Phytoremediation \ Clayton L. Rugh
Phytoremediation: Advances Towards a New Cleanup Technology\ Adel Zayed
Pierce’s Disease and Others Caused by Xylella fastidiosa \ John S. Hartung
Plant Cell Culture and its Applications \ James M. Lee
Plant Cell Tissue and Organ Culture: Concepts and Methodologies \ Darren O. Sage and Ian J. Puddephat
Plant Defenses Against Insects: Constitutive and Induced Chemical Defenses \ Linda Walling
Plant Defenses Against Insects: Physical Defenses \ Sanford D. Eigenbrode
Plant Defenses Against Insects: Role of Endophytes \ Stanley H. Faeth
Plant Diseases Caused by Bacteria \ Clarence I. Kado
Plant Diseases Caused by Phytoplasmas \ Elisabeth Boudon-Padieu
Plant Diseases Caused by Sub-viral Agents \ Peter Palukaitis
Plant DNA Virus Diseases \ Robert L. Gilbertson and Maria R. Rojas
Plant Pathogen Interactions: Evolution \ Ian Crute
Plant Produced Recombinant Therapeutics \ Lokesh Joshi, Miti M. Shah, C. Robert Flynn, and Alyssa Panitch
Plant Response to Stress: Abscisic Acid and Water Stress \ Jun Huang and Jian-Kang Zhu
Plant Response to Stress: Abscisic Acid Fluxes \ Wolfram Hartung
Plant Response to Stress: Biochemical Adaptations to Phosphate Deficiency \ William C. Plaxton
Plant Response to Stress: Critical Periods in Plant Development \ G. Nissim Amzallag
Plant Response to Stress: Genome Reorganization in Flax \ Christopher A. Cullis
Plant Response to Stress: Mechanisms of Accommodation \ H. R. Lerner
Plant Response to Stress: Modifications of the Photosynthetic Apparatus \ Eevi Rintamäki
Plant Response to Stress: Phosphatidic Acid as a Second Messenger \ Christa Testerink and Teun Munnik
Plant Response to Stress: Regulation of Plant Gene Expression to Drought \ Kazuo Shinozaki and Kazuko Yamaguchi-Shinozaki
Plant Response to Stress: Role of Molecular Chaperones \ Barbara Despres and Pierre Goloubinoff
Plant Response to Stress: Role of the Jasmonate Signal Transduction Pathway \ Mirna Atallah and Johan Memelink
Plant Response to Stress: Source-sink Regulation by Stress \ Thomas Roitsch
Plant Responses to Stress: Nematode Infection \ Godelieve Gheysen
Plant Responses to Stress: Ultraviolet-B Light \ Brian R. Jordan
Plant RNA Virus Diseases \ Bryce W. Falk and Roger Hull
Plant Variety Protection in the United States \ Janice M. Strachan
Plant Viral Synergisms \ John L. Sherwood
Plant Virus Nomenclature and Taxonomy \ Edward P. Rybicki
Plant Virus Replication \ Mike Shanks and George Lomonossoff
Plant Virus Transmission \ Rose C. Gergerich
Plant Virus: Structure and Assembly \ A. L. N. Rao
Plant Viruses: Initiation of Infection \ James N. Culver
Plasticity of Root Architecture: Developmental and Nutritional Aspects \ Wolfgang Schmidt and Margarete Müller
Pollen-stigma Interactions \ Simon J. Hiscock
Polyploidy \ Jan Dvorak
Population Genetics \ Michael T. Clegg
Population Genetics of Plant Pathogenic Fungi \ Bruce A. McDonald
Post-Translational Modifications and Recombinant Therapeutic Proteins \ Lokesh Joshi, Miti M. Shah, C. Robert Flynn, and
Alyssa Panitch
Potassium and Other Macronutrients \ Patrick H. Brown
Pre-agricultural Plant Gathering and Management \ M. Kat Anderson
Protein Quality in Transgenic Plants: Improvements \ Jesse M. Jaynes
Protoplast Applications in Biotechnology \ Michael R. Davey, P. Anthony, J. B. Power, and K. C. Lowe
Protoplast Culture and Regeneration \ J. B. Power, Michael R. Davey, P. Anthony, and K. C. Lowe
Quantitative Trait Locus Analyses of the Domestication Syndrome and Domestication Process \ Valérie Poncet, Thierry Robert,
Aboubakry Sarr, and Paul Gepts
Quantitative Trait Locus Mapping of Agronomic Traits\ Mark E. Sorrells
Radiation Hybrid Mapping \ Ron J. Okagaki, Ralf G. Kynast, Howard W. Rines, and Ronald L. Phillips
Recombination and Genetic Variation \ Clifford F. Weil
Reconciling Agriculture with the Conservation of Tropical Forests \ Wil de Jong
Regeneration from Guard Cells of Crop and Other Plant Species \ Jim M. Dunwell
Retrotransposons and Their Contributions to Plant Genome and Gene Evolution \ Amar Kumar
Rhizodeposition: Composition and Quantitative Aspects \ Günter Neumann
Rhizosphere Management: Microbial Manipulation for Biocontrol \ Ben J.J. Lugtenberg and Faina D. Kamilova
Rhizosphere: An Overview \ Roberto Pinton
Rhizosphere: Biochemical Reactions \ Paolo Nannipieri
Rhizosphere: Microbial Populations \ James M. Lynch
Rhizosphere: Modeling \ Peter R. Darrah
Rhizosphere: Nutrient Movement and Availability \ Philippe Hinsinger
Rice\ Takuji Sasaki
Rice Blast \ Guo-liang Wang and Jin-Rong Xu
RNA-mediated Silencing \ Karin van Dijk and Heriberto Cerutti
Root Membrane Activities Relevant to Plant-Soil Interactions \ Zeno Varanini
Root-Feeding Insects \ Eli Levine
Rubisco Activase \ Archie R. Portis Jr.
Secondary Metabolites as Phytomedicines \ Donald P. Briskin
Seed Banks and Seed Dormancy Among Weeds \ Lynn Fandrich
Seed Borne Pathogens \ S. B. Mathur and H. K. Manandhar
Seed Dormancy \ Alister J. Murdoch
Seed Genebank: Functions, Acquisition Strategies, and Database Management \ Ardeshir B. Damania
Seed Production \ Murray J. Hill
Seed Testing Methods \ Daniel Curry
Seed Vigor \ Alison A. Powell
Seeds: Pathogen Transmission Through \ Curgonio Cappelli
Sex Chromosomes in Plants \ M. Ruiz Rejón
Shade Avoidance Syndrome and Its Impact on Agriculture \ Garry C. Whitelam
Social Aspects of Sustainable Agriculture \ Frederick H. Buttel
Somaclonal Variation: Origins and Causes \ Philip Larkin
Somatic Cell Genetics of Banana \ D. K. Becker and M. K. Smith
Somatic Embryogenesis in Plants \ Ray Rose
Soy Wood Adhesives for Agro-based Composites \ Monlin Kuo and Deland J. Myers Sr.
Spatial Dimension, The: Geographic Information Systems and Geostatistics \ Francis Pierce, Oliver Schabenberger, and Max
Crandall
Spatial Distribution of Weeds \ J.A. “Anita” Dille
Starch \ Wolfgang Eisenreich and Adelbert Bacher
Striga: A Subterranean Parasitic Angiosperm (Witchweed) \ John I. Yoder and Lytton John Musselman
Sucrose \ Ed Etxeberria
Sustainable Agriculture and Food Security \ Jules Pretty
Sustainable Agriculture: Definition and Goals \ Glen C. Rains, W. Joe Lewis, and Dawn M. Olson
Sustainable Agriculture: Economic Indicators \ David Pimentel
Sustainable Agriculture: Ecological Indicators \ Stephen Jones
Sustainable Agriculture: Philosophical Framework \ Paul B. Thompson
Sweet Sorghum: Applications in Ethanol Production \ Glen C. Rains and John W. Worley
Sweetgrass and its Use in African-American Folk Art \ Robert J. Dufault
Switchgrass as a Bioenergy Crop \ Samuel B. McLaughlin and Lynn A. Kszos
Symbioses with Rhizobia and Mycorrhizal Fungi: Microbe/Plant Interactions and Signal Exchange \ James E. Cooper
Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation \ Timothy R. McDermott
Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation: Plant Nutrition \ Timothy R. McDermott
Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation: Special Roles of Micronutrients \ David A. Dalton
Tobamoviral Vectors: Developing a Production System for Pharmaceuticals in Transfected Plants \ Jennifer Lee Busto and
Monto H. Kumagai
Transformation Methods and Impact \ Karabi Datta and Swapan K. Datta
Transgenes (GM) Sampling and Detection Methods in Seeds \ Alessandro Pellegrineschi
Transgenes: Expression and Silencing of \ George C. Allen
Transgenetic Plants: Breeding Programs for Sustainable Insect Resistance \ Michael B. Cohen
Transgenic Crop Plants in the Environment \ R. James Cook
Transgenic Crops: Regulatory Standards and Procedures of Research and Commercialization \ Qifa Zhang
Transposons and Allelic Diversity \ L. Curtis Hannah and Clifford F. Weil
Trichomes \ Stephen O. Duke
UV Radiation Effects on Phyllosphere Microbes \ Thusitha S. Gunasekera
UV Radiation Penetration in Plant Canopies \ Richard H. Grant
Vaccines Produced in Transgenic Plants \ Hugh S. Mason
Viral Host Genomics \ Steven A. Whitham
Virus Assays: Detection and Diagnosis \ Clarissa J. Maroon-Lango
Virus Induced Gene Silencing \ S. P. Dinesh-Kumar, Rajendra Marathe, and Radhamani Anandalakshmi
Virus Movement in Plants \ Richard S. Nelson, Xin Shun Ding, and Shelly A. Carter
Viruses and Viroids: Evolution \ Marilyn J. Roossinck
Water Deficits: Development \ Kadambot H. M. Siddique
Water Movement Through the Plant \ Jonathan P. Comstock
Water Use Efficiency Including Carbon Isotope Discrimination \ Anthony G. Condon
Wax Esters from Transgenic Plants \ Kathryn D. Lardizabal
Weed Management in Less Developed Countries \ Peter R. Hobbs and Robin R. Bellinder
Weed Management in Organic Cropping Systems \ Ilse A. Rasmussen
Weeds in Turfgrass \ John C. Stier
Wheat Rusts \ James A. Kolmer
Yeast Two-Hybrid Technology\ Lisa Nodzon and Wen-Yuan Song
Agricultural Origins: Old World
Taylor A. Steeves
Departmentof Biology,Universityof Saskatchewan,Saskatoon,
Saskatchewan,Canada
Abstract
The origin of agriculture began about ten thousand years ago. Seven centres of origin have been
identified,fourintheOldWorldandthreeintheNewWorld.TheoldestcentreisintheOldWorld
at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea extending through Syria, Turkey, Iraq and Iran. Two
separate origins were located in China, one in the south along the Yangtze River and another in
thenorthinthevalleyoftheYellowRiver.ThefourthcentrewasinabandinAfricaextendingsouth
of the Sahara. The transition was a gradual one in each separate case and the plants that were
domesticatedweredistinctiveoftheparticularregion.Theoriginofagriculturecanbelookedupon
as an evolutionary process in which the domesticated plants underwent substantial modifications.
For the humans the transformation may also be looked upon as an evolutionary process but the
changeshavebeenlargelyculturalratherthanphysical.Thereisgrowingevidencethatagricultural
originswerenotentirelyrestrictedtothecentresbutoccurredtovaryingdegreesinotherlocations.
INTRODUCTION The second oldest center of origin appears to have
been in southern China along the Yangtze River, and
For most of their history, humans have been hunters the age is believed to be around 8500 years. Rice was
and gatherers and only in the past 10,000 years has the main crop, but various other plants were culti-
agriculturebecomethebasisoffoodproduction.With- vated, including water caltrop and foxnut. Another
out farming, human population remained low, prob- centeroforigininChinawasindependentlyestablished
ably somewhere between 10 and 30 million and only along the Yellow River in the north, a 1000 years
the invention and spread of agriculture have allowed later, around 7500 years ago. Here the original crops
population to pass six billion and continue to grow. were millets and only much later was rice introduced
Foralongtime,itwaswidelybelievedthatthediscov- to cultivation. The fourth old world center of origin
ery of farming techniques was a unique invention in occurred much later about 4000 years ago in a band,
the mountainous region east of the Mediterranean southoftheSaharaDesert.Heresorghum,millets,and
Sea.Now,however,atleastsixotherindependentcen- adifferentspeciesofricewerethemajorcropsdomesti-
ters of origin are recognized and evidence is emerging cated. Further study of the origin of agriculture has
that there may be others.[1] Four of the centers of increasingly led to the conclusion that the recognized
origin are in the old world and these will be the topic centersareimportant,butthatthereisevidenceofnon-
of this article. centered origins including New Guinea and southeast
Asia.[3,4]
The age of organic materials found in excavations
OLD WORLD CENTERS has for many years been determined by measuring
the emissions of beta particles from carbon 14 formed
The oldest center of origin in the old world is believed by cosmic rays acting on nitrogen. More recently, a
to be in the Near East in a band called the Fertile newmethodusingacceleratormassspectrometrymea-
Crescent, extending from the eastern end of the sures carbon 14 directly and can deal with very small
Mediterranean Sea through Syria, Southern Turkey, quantities such as one seed. This technique has led to
Iraq, and Iran. The age of this center is believed to the correction of a number of dates arrived at by the
be 9000–9500 years, but there is growing support for older method.[1]
an age of at least 10,000 years.[2] Wheat, barley, peas,
and lentils were important crops, and sheep and goats
were domesticated. Sickle blades for harvesting and THE TRANSITION TO AGRICULTURE
grinding equipment were definitely in use. During the
earlypartofthisperiod,theclimatewaswarmingwith The transition from hunting and gathering to agricul-
minor oscillations after the last Ice Age. ture was a gradual one, which occurred over a long
Fromhereagriculturespreadsalongthenorthcoast period of time and there still remain groups that have
of the Mediterranean to Europe and south to the Nile not adopted this method. The study of these people
valley and Mesopotamia. such as the Kung Bushmen in South Africa and the
EncyclopediaofPlantandCropScienceDOI:10.1081/E-EPCS-120010412
Copyright#2006byTaylor&Francis.Allrightsreserved. 1
Copyright © 2006 by Taylor & Francis
