Egyptian Medicine

38 Pages·2007·4 MB·English

Egyptian Medicine
Carole Reeves
2
3
Coverillustration
Carpenters making acatafaIque. A workman ishaving his ann examined Contents
(top right) whilstanotherscreamsasa hammerfalls on to his foot (top left).
Afurther workman applies eye paintto acolleague'seyes (bottom lett).
Facsimilepainting by Normande GarisDavies
from the tombofIpuy, Deirel-Medina, Nineteenth Dynasty. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 4
(Courtesyofthe Metropolitan Museum ofArt, New York, 30.4./16.)
LISTOF ILLUSTRATIONS 5
CHRONOLOGY 7
I. INTRODUCTION 9
2. HEALTH AND HYGIENE 11
3. THE MEDICAL PROFESSION 21
BritishLibraryCalaloguingin PublicationData:
4. DISEASES AND DEFORMITIES 33
Reeves, Carole.
Egyptian Medicine._
(ShireEgyptology Series; No. IS). 5. THE MEDICALPAPYRI 49
I. Title. II. Series.
932. 6. DRUGS AND THE PRESCRIPTION 55
ISBN0-7478-0]27-4.
7. GLOSSARY OF MEDICAL TERMS 63
Publishedin 200] by
SHIREPUBLICATIONSLTD
Cromwell House, ChurchStreet,Princes Risborough, 8. FURTHER READING 67
BuckinghamshireHP27 9AA. UK.
(Website: www.shirebooks.co.uk) 9. MUSEUMS 69
SeriesEditor: BarbaraAdams.
INDEX 71
Copyright© Carole Reeves, 1992.
All rights reserved.
Nopart ofthispublication may bereproduced ortransmitted
inanyform orbyany means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopy. recording. or anyinformation storage
andretrieval system. withoutpermission inwriting
from thepnblishers.
Number 15in theShire Egyptologyseries.
ISBN 0747801274.
First published 1992;reprinted 200I.
Printed inGreat Britain by
CIT PrintingServices Ltd.
Press BUildings.Merlins Bridge, Haverfordwest, Pembrokeshire SA61 IXF.
4
5
Acknowledgements
List of illustrations
~y 'pri~ilege
It is to extend acknowledgement to the many individuals
1. Theeffectsoffamine, Fifth Dynastypage 10
an~ msntutions who offered guidance, encouragement and practical 2. The workmen's village, Deirel-Medina, New Kingdompage 13
assistance during the production of this book. Long before it began, 3. A man vomitingat abanquet,Eighteenth Dynastypage 14
~n
however, Iwas drawn into appreciationofthe historyofmedicine by 4. Severedental attrition, Twenty-first orTwenty-secondDynastypage 16
JohnL. Thornton,formerLIbrarIan toStBartholomew'sHospital Medi 5. Glazed terracottavase probably used to hold humanmilkpage 19
~al ~oll~ge, wh?se e~tensiveknowledge of medical history fired my 6. Hieroglyphs meaning 'to give birth' page 19 .
rmagrnanon. It IS to him that lowe an incalculable debt. 7. Womenseated on birthing st0o:ols, Korn ambo, RomanPenodpage20
8. Hieroglyphic word forsinw :physician' page~2. .
My thanks extend to the libraries, universities and museums who
9. Statueof Imhotep, chiefphysiciantoPharaohDjoser,Third Intcnncdiate
haveallowedme touseillustrationsfrom their collectionsand toBarbara Periodpage22
Adams and AngelaThomas for their advice and criticism. Mostofthe 10. Wood reliefof Hesire,achiefofphysicians and dentist, Third Dynasty
line drawings have been specially prepared by Helena Jaeschkc page23
(ArchaeoptyxArchaeologicalDrawingServices) and Iproudlyacknow 11. Limestonesteleof Iry, achiefofcourtphysicians,Fourth Dynastypage23
ledge her assistance..David Burder took many ofthe splendid photo 12. Reconstruction ofthe templeatEdfu, GreekPeriodpage 24
13. Asick man bringinggifts tothegodHorus,ThirdIntermediatePeriodpage25
graphs which appear III the book. Acknowledgement is made to W. J. 14. Hieroglyphs representingexternal and internal parts ofthe ~odypage26
Murnane and Penguin Books Limited for permission to reproduce the
15. Wallreliefofsurgicalinstruments, Kom ambo, RomanPenodpage27
chronology.
16. Words using the 'outpouring' hieroglyph determinativespage27
17. Hieroglyphic words for 'sweat', 'inflammation', 'nutter', 'weep' and
'honey' page28
18. Hieroglyphic words for diseases caused by injury, breathlessness and a
fracture or dislocatedbonepage28
19. Wall reliefdepictingacircumcision scene,SixthDy~astypage29
20. Nebamun givingaremedy toa princeofMesopotamia,EIghteenth Dynasty
page30 . .,
21. Wooden figurine depicting kyphosis aswell as achestdeformity,FIfth
Dynastypage32
22. StatuettedepictingPott's disease, Predynasticpage32
23. Fivefishermen with evidenceof schistosomiasis,Sixth Dynastypage34
24. Apotterwith gross genital hypertrophy,Sixth Dynastypage35
25. Wall reliefshowing the pendulousbreasts of old age, TwelfthDynasty
p~e~ .
26. X-ray showingcalcificationof the femoral artenes page36
27. Neferhotep,a grosslyobese harpist, Middle Kingdompage37
28. X-ray showinggall-stones in the gall bladderpage38
29. TheQueen ofPunt,EighteenthDynastypage38
30. Cavitation ofleft maxillainmultiplebasal-cell naevus syndromepage39
31. Dentigerous cyst cavityinmultiplebasal-cellnaevus syndromepage39
32. Bifidribs in multiplebasal-cellnaevussyndromepage39
33. Aservantcarryingawaterjar, Eighteenth Dynastypage40
34. X-ray showingdegenerativechangesofthe spinepage41
35. Osteochondromaofthe femur, Fifth Dynastypage42
36. Wall reliefof ablind harpist,Eighteenth Dynastypage42
37. Hieroglyphicwordfor an eye diseasepage42
38. The achondroplasicdwarfDjehor,LatePeriodpage43
39. Alabasterboatwith an achondroplasiedwarfat the helm,Eighteenth
Dynastypage43
6 7
Egyptian Medicine
40. ThedwarfSeneb with his wifeand children,SixthDynastypage44 Chronology
41. LimestonestatueofaBes-goddepicted as adwarf,Graeco-Roman Period
page45
42 ThedoorkeeperRuma, portraying the typical appearanceof poliomyelitis, From W. J. Murnane, The PenguinGuide toAncient Egypt, 1983, and including
Eighteenth Dynastypage45 namesofthoserulersmentioned in the text.
43. StatueofAkhenatenrevealing hiseffeminatephysique,Eighteenth Dynasty
page 46
44. Statueof TuthmosisIV revealing pronounced gynaecomastia, Eighteenth NeolithicPeriod before5000BC FayumA
Dynastypage 46
45. SteleofAmenophis III revealing gynaecomastiaand effeminateatrir«, Predynastic c.5000 -3300BC
Eighteenth Dynastypage 46 Period
46. StatuetteofTutankhamun showinghis gynaecoruaxtia, Eighteenth Dynasty
page 47 Protodynastic c.3300-3050BC
47. TheinfantTutunkhamunemergingfrom alotus flower, Eighteenth Dynasty Period
page 48
48. X-ray ofa mummified foetus from the tomb ofTutankhamun,Eighteenth EarlyDynastic 3050-2613Be
Dynastypage 48 Period 3050-2890Dynasty I
HorusAha(Athothis)
49. A pagefrom the Ebers Papyrus, New Kingdompage 51
HorusDjer
50. Fourbronzeknives from Gurob,Eighteenth to Nineteenth Dynastiespage50
2890-2682DynastyII
51. Thefourhieroglyphs which represent the word 'knife' page51
2686-2613Dynasty III
52. ColumnXl ofthe Edwin SmithPapyrus, Second IntermediatePeriod but
copiedfrom an Old Kingdomtext page51 2668 -2649 Djoser
53. Kahun Medical Papyrus, Twelfth Dynastypage52
54. Tutankhamun's mandrakeand poppybracelet,Eighteenth Dynastypage50 Old Kingdom 2613-2181 BC
2613-2498DynastyIV
55. Princess Meretatenofferinga mandrakeplant toSrnenkhkarc, Eighteenth
Dynastypage56 2589 -2566 Khufu
2558 -2532 Khaefre
56. I.adies at a banquet,Eighteenth Dynastypage56
2532 -2504Mycerinus
57. Seti Ioffering incense toOsiris, NineteenthDynastypage57
2498-2345Dynasty V
58. Hieroglyphicdeterminatives meaningmineral, plantand herbpage57
2491 -2477 Sahure
59. Potteryjuglets from Cyprus, used tocarryopium,Eighteenth Dynastypage
2375 -2345 Unas
58
2345 -2181 Dynasty VI
60. Paintedwallreliefofan ibis, Fifth Dynastypage 60
2278-2184 PepiII
61. A pharmacist'scarryingcase,Eleventh Dynastypage61
62. TheeyeofHorus and the hieroglyphsfor the fractions ofthe prescription
page61 First 2181 -2040BC
63. Map ofancientEgyptpage 62 Intermediate 2181 - 2040Dynasties VII-X
2134- 2060DynastyXI (Theban)
Period
MiddleKingdom 2040- 1782BC
2060- 1991 DynastyXI
1991 - 1782 DynastyXII
1897-1878Sesostris II
Second 1782 - 1570 BC
Intermediate 1782- 1650 Dynasties XIIIandXIV
Period (Egyptian)
1663 - 1555 Dynasties XV and XVI
(Hyksos)
1663 - 1570 DynastyXVII (Theban)
8
Egyptian Medicine
9
New Kingdom 1570- 1070BC
1
1570- 1293 DynastyXVIII
1518 -1504 Tuthmosis II Introduction
1504-1450 TuthmosisIJ1
1498 -1483 Hatshepsut
1453 -1419 AmenophisII Research into the medicine and diseases of ancient Egypt involves the
1419-1386 TuthmosisIV study ofmany aspects ofits civilisation. The study of literary sources
1386-1349 AmenophisIII and artistic representations in painting and sculpture, as well as the
1350 -1334 AmenophisIV (Akhena1en) examination ofskeletal remains and mummies, has yielded a wealth of
1336-1334 Srnenkhkare
material. Inaddition, the widerinteraction between ancientdisease and
1334-1325 Tutallkhamun
1293- 1185 DynastyXIX the contemporary environment involves the studies ofarchitecture and
1293 -1291 RamessesI town planning, clothing, nutrition, agriculture and animal husbandry,
/29/ - /278 SetiI commerce and travel.
/279 -1212 RamessesII Medicine is both an art and a science. The art of restoring and
12/2- 1202 Merneptah preserving health is as old as life itself but the science of discovering
Jl93 -1187 Siptah
and analysing the processofdiseaseis little more than acenturyold and
1185- 1070 DynastyXX
Jl85 -1/82 Sethnakhte could not have been accomplished without parallel advances in tech
1182 -1/51 RamessesIII nology. Modern medicine is greatly assisted by diagnostic techniques
]]45-1141 Ramesses V such as radiography, computed tomography, electron and light
microscopy, serology and endoscopy, all ofwhich have been applied to
Third 1070-713DC
ancient Egyptian remains. It is now possible not only to blood-group
Intermediate 1070-945 DynastyXXI
Period mummies but to extract DNA by molecular cloning, to analyse trace
945-712 DynastyXXII
828-712 DynastyXXIII elements in teeth by atomic absorption spectrometry, to measure metal
724 -713 DynastyXXIV levels in bone by X-ray fluorescence and to computerise all these de
tails into the International Mummy Data Base held at the Manchester
LatePeriod 713 -332 BC Museum.
713 -656 DynastyXXV (Nubian) The application of modern techniques to the study of Egyptian re
664 -525 DynastyXXVI
mains has enabled new diagnoses to be made and, in some cases, the
570 -526 AhnioseII
old ones to be redefined. During the 1960s, for example, extensive
525-404 Dynasty XXVIl (Persian)
525-522 Camhyses radiological examination of a series of mummies revealed skeletal
521-486 DariusI evidence of a very rare inherited disease called alkaptonuria, which
404 -399 DynastyXXVIII deposits a characteristic black pigment into the spine. This pigment
399-380 DynastyXXIX was seen in almost a quarter of the mummies X-rayed, although in
380-343 DynastyXXX modern society alkaptonuria occurs in only one person in five million.
(Egyptian/Persian)
Expert papers were written which offered explanations for this remark
Graeco-Roman 332DC-AD 395 ably high frequency of alkaptonuria in ancient Egypt. Twenty years
Period 332 - 30 Ptolernies later, a new technique called nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy
205 -180 Ptolemy V demonstrated a molecular similarity between the black spinal pigment
51 - 30 Cleopatra Vll and juniperresin - an embalmer's material.
30-AD 395 Roman Emperors This book is not simply a history of Egyptian medicine. It is an
ByzantinePeriod AD 323- 642 attempt to present an overview of health and disease in ancient Egypt
and to outline important developments in the practice of medicine.
IslamicPeriod AD 642- 1517 Hypothetical or unsubstantiated data have not been included but evi
dence from modern scientific research has been quoted where this re-
10
Egyptian Medicine 11
il:f~rces pathological and epidemiological findings. A volume of this
SIze c.an serv~ .only as an mtroduction to the fascinating subject of 2
~gYPt~an~~dlcme. r~aders
Interested will find the bibliography'(chap
Health and hygiene
tel 8) a useful sourceoffurther mfonnat1On.
During the 67-year reign ofRarnesses II (Nineteenth Dynasty) an esti
mated 21/2million people lived in Egypt. Most were landlesspeasants,
dependent for an existence upon the beneficence of the local landlord
and the caprices or the Nile's annual inundation. When the Nile rose
too high houses and fields were flooded but many times in Egypt's
history the inundation proved inadequate. Lack of water brought fam
ine, pestilence and disease (figure 1).
There are no records ofhow many people died during thc seven-year
failureofthe Nile's annual flood during the reign ofthe Pharaoh Djoscr
(Third Dynasty) but it may have been many thousands. An inscription
engraved on a granite block on the island or Sehel during the Greek
Period tells how, during this famine:
Children wept. Grown-ups swayed. As to the old, their heart
was sad, their knees gaveway, they sat on the ground, their arms
swinging.
The most common ordinary dwelling in early Predynastic Egypt was
the round hut builtofpoles, reeds and mud. This was later changed to a
square shape and, later still, was built of mudbricks dried in the sun
the traditional adobe house. These dwellings have survived less well
than the stone-constructed tombs and temples from which much ofour
knowledge ofancientEgypt is derived.
During the Dynastic Period Egypt was divided into provinces, or
nomes, and by the New Kingdom there were 42 names, each with its
own administrative centre and urban development. The most densely
populated areas were the Delta and the area in southern Egypt from
Thebes to Aswan (estimated at over 200 people per square kilometre).
Bubastis, thecapitalofthe eighteenth nomeofLowerEgypt, which was
inhabited throughout the Dynastic Period, covered an area ofabout 75
hectares. Heliopolis, near modern-dayCairo, was the largestcity inthe
New Kingdom and had an urban area ofabout 23 square kilometres.
Apart from this natural urban development there were periods when
large workforces were needed for the construction of state buildings,
mostparticularly the Pharaoh's mortuary complex. Themajorityofthe
peasant workforces used for the building of public works were em
1. Limestone relief from the
ployed only during the period when the Nile flooded and work on the
causeway of Unas' pyramid,
Saqqara, Fifth Dynasty, show land ceased. Remains of housing built to accommodate at least 4000
irig the effects of famine. workmen havebeen found near the pyramidofKhaefre at Giza(Fourth
(Courtesy of the Musee du
Dynasty) although the maximum seasonal workforce may have num
Louvre, Paris, E.17.376.)
bered 100,000.
12 Egyptian Medicine Health andhygiene 13
Thepurpose-builtworkmen'stown ofKahun was constructedtohouse
the officialsand workforcebuildingthe pyramidofSesostrisII atLahun
in about 1895 Be. The larger houses in Kahun generally included a
reception hall or living room, women's quarters, a kitchen and a room
with washing or bathing facilities. There were also cellars and circular
granaries. In poorer as well as rich dwellings, stone tanks used for
washing were set into the mud floors, and running down the centre of
every street were the remains of stone drainage channels. The town
housed an estimated population of5000on a 14hectare sill'.
Sir William Flinders Petrie, the British Egyptologist who excavated
Kahun between 1888 and 1890, discovered that almostevery house had
been invaded by rats and their holes had been stuffed with stones and
rubbish. A pottery rat trap was also found. Cats were kept to protect
food and grain from rodents but, in the absence ofa cat, 'eat's grease'
was recommended as a deterrent.
The workmen's village of Deir el-Medina was occupied by Thcban
artisans for 450 years from the beginning ofthe Eighteenth Dynasty to
the end ofthe Twentieth (figure2). Thedwellings were originally built
of mudbrick but later housing included walls with stone bases. The
single-storey, flat-roofed houses had an average of four rooms, with
small windows with stoneor wooden grilles. Theinside walls might be
decorated with frescoes or whitewashed, and wooden doors opened
directlyon tothe street. Duringthe reign ofSeti I(Nineteenth Dynasty)
there were about 600 people living in the village and, unlike in the
earlieryears ofsettlement, the animals were kept in compounds outside ., , " , D" -I-Medina buillto house the craftsmen
2 The remains ol the workmen s v:llage,. cir c K.'J (Photograph DavidG.
rather than inside the village walls. v.:hohuillthe tombs of the Valleyo[ the KIIlgs, New IIlg om.
The smallest workmen's village, at Tell el-Amarna, was built in the Burdcr,FRPS.)
Eighteenth Dynasty to house the workmen constructing Akhenaten's
new city,Akhetaten. Itwas occupiedbysome 350inhabitantsfor about el-Medina, a coarse terracotta closet-st,ooI. I~ the fine hhouS~at~~
thirteen years. Each house had four areas: an outer work area, a living Akhetaten bathroom suites had bath or shower roOl~s were
room, a bedroom and a kitchen with stairs leading to the roof. The d . d t f the house through a covered gully into a tank, and
was rame au or tne nou: bIb wls ofsand
houses, although not elaborate, were sturdily built with mainly white lavatories with wood, pottery or stone seats ~ ave arge 0 , ent
washed walls and ceilings. All household refuse was dumped on to SItes away from sett1em
None ofthese settlements had wells, so water had to be broughtfrom
ar~~'ouschold ~eenwast~d~as
the river, which, at Deir el-Medina, was over 1.5 km away. In this commoditywhichwouldnot have food,
village water was first stored in largejars within the houses but later a articularlyamongstpoorercommunities. Theestimateddailyintakeof
afig~~
community reservoir was built outside the north gate. In all the dwell food duringtheDynasticPeriodwasbetween480and576.grams,
ings furniture was sparse and simple. People slept on the floor, on clay comparable with that ofmodern Latin America. T?emarnc~~ps g~)of
benches along the wall or on beds of interlaced cord with a wooden in E t were cereals: emmer wheat (Triticum dicoccum ran or
brea~y~nd als~
headrest. Feathers were used to stuff cushions although these were barley (Hordeum vulgareL.) for beer. Bread was made
used as back supports rather than pillows. from the headsofthe whitelotus. Therew~repulses such asfen~I!S a~~
In ordinary Egyptian homes the lavatoryconsisted ofa wooden stool chick eas: vegetables such as lettuces, onions, cucumbers, ee s, ra
~nd
under which a cup half-filled with sand might be placed or, as at Deir ishes garlic; fruit, particularlydates, figs, grapesandmelons; plants
14
Egyptian Medicine Health andhygiene 15
grown for oil, such as sesame; grapes for wine; pomegranate and palm
winewerealso made(thelatterbeing used in embalming for rinsingout
the abdominal cavity and washing the extracted organs); papyrus and
flaxforwritingmaterials,clothing,sailsandropes. Honey,dates,raisins,
'tiger nuts' (Cyperus esculentus L.) and carob pods were available as
sweeteners. Meatwas arare luxuryfor mostpeople, herdsbeinggrazed
on marginal land, especially in the marshes ofthe Delta. Cattle, sheep,
goats and pigs were eaten. Meat, fish and fowl weredried and probably
salted. Geese, ducks, quail and other game birds were fairly plentiful,
andhuntingthese wasafavouritepastimeoftherich. Domesticfowl may
have beenarare importduringthe New Kingdombut becamepopularin
the Roman Period.
Eggs, cheese, milk and perhaps yoghurt were available. Whether
milkwas drunkin large quantitiesis uncertain. Nor isitknown whether
the Egyptians suffered the lactose intolerance seen in Middle Eastern
and African populations today.
Most people ate three times aday even if the meal was simply bread
and beer. The upper classes ate more richly if not more frequently
(figure 3). Basic payment for workers and their families at Deir el
Medinawas in grain, fish, vegetablesand water(therewas no monetary
system in Egypt until the Greek Period). They also received pottery
and wood for fuel. Less regular deliveries were made of cakes, beer
and dates but on festive occasions bonuses were paid in salt, natron,
sesame oil and meat. Clothes were occasionally supplied to supple
ment those woven and made in the village.
Whilst the wages were regular the community lived well but a major
strike occurred in the 29th year of the reign of Ramcsses III when
supplieswere twentydays late. The workers' protestsoutlinethe prob
lem: 'We have come because we are hungry and thirsty. We have no
clothes, we have no ointments, we have no greens.' Several more
strikes occurred in successivereigns and these are the first documented
instances of collectiveprotestby a workforce.
From the 'Instruction of Duauf (The Satire ofthe Trades, Papyrus
SallierIl), writtenduring the MiddleKingdom, we knowthe sort oflife
that the average Egyptian might expect in any trade except that of
scribe, which was considered the easiestoccupation of all.
I have seen the metal worker at his task at the mouth of his
furnace. His fingers were like the hide of crocodiles; he stank
worse than fish spawn.
Thecobbleris very wretched; he isforever begging; he has noth
6'rt.;
f' , . ing to bite but leather.
3. Wall paintingofamanvomitingatabanquet,EighteenthDynasty (Courtesyof the The fuller washeth upon the river bank, a near neighbour of the
Musces Royauxd'Artet d'Histoire, Brussels,2877.) .
crocodiles.
16 17
Egyptian Medicine ttralth andhygiene
Of 1188 teeth examined from the Giza collection of eighteen skulls
_theremains of the kinsfolk and courtiers ofPharaoh Khufu (Fourth
Iiynasty) _ there were only 38 carious cavities. In only one instance
kld the cavity progressed beyond theenamel to invade the pulp cham
IlLT and cause an apical (root) abscess. The Manchester Museum col
icction consists of material dating from the late Dynastic, Greek and
RomanPeriods,wherethe cariogenic factorwas muchhigherand where
.umost all the cavities hadresultedin abscesses.
Whilst caries results in progressive loss of tooth substance and is
associated with increased usc of dietary sugars, periodontal disease is
characterisedby inflammationofthe gum surroundingthe tooth. Chronic
inflammation eventually leads to loss of both thc alveolar supporting
bone and the tooth. In Egypt periodontal disease was very prevalent
and was provokedby the stresses andstrains applied to the teeth during
chewing and by serious dental attrition (wearing clown of the teeth,
figure 4). 'A remedy to treat a tooth which is eaten away where the
gums begin' may be found in the Ebers Papyrus. It consists of a
mixtureofcumin,frankincense and carob-pod pulp ground to a powder
and applied to the tooth (Eb 742).
sm4e.ivsesTrioehnedeotnefetPatrhloafalnle{d~).n~ji.~avew~l~'s~ioJt'f~ynap~'rm-~Isam1sl':r'.~wth001:dTi.ewdem.ntyh-isseeeaornl]Dl~~~'~I.~>MIe•.dic~~h~~:oranell.~ds<:e•cVD~'dcynceof thDeetneetathl aotftraitlimonositsecvoemrymaonnctioenatllEegayrplytiapno,ptuhlraotuiognhsoubtutaltlhaptersieoednsoonf
and Manchester .l)t ,Kmg's CollegeSchool of ebntI.SpleIYr-, history, is much more cxtcnsive. Vegetables containing a high silica
content, easily abradedquerns for grinding corn and ill-cleansed foods
are explanations common to all cultures but the Egyptians had the
~e.Oalnt.hlarge building projects doctors wer~ . additional hazard ofthe contaminationoftheircereals, flour andconse
ofthe workmen but kee in . appointed to oversee the
~nJ~nes quently their bread by fragments of sand and by grit which may have
at bay must havebeen fn ;nepidemic disease and occupational
forOt~mous (~ove: been introduced during the milling process to act as a cutting agent.
chief physician' was appointed task illustration). A
~I.llage Attrition wore down the teeth to such an extent that the dental pulp
Medina and adoctor by the name ofMe workm,en s at Deir el
became exposed and infected. This resulted in abscesses and the for
There werealsoforemen on site who etu was physicianofthe serfs'
t~ePtr~l~o~ds absentee~ mation of cysts in the jaw. It also altered the shape of the cutting
Ism and these provide evidence of o? slatesof
~VI surfaces (cusps) oftheteeth and this, in turn, caused themovements of
work. One reads: 'Fourth month ofthe s eeping a man from his
the temporomandibularjointtobecomeabnormal and overloaded. This
- was stung by a scorpion '. a d e ood day 27, Nebnefer was ill
21 T ... , n another' 'F t h eventually led to marked osteo-arthritic changes, which are very com
ementu was absent_ had a fi h . '. Irs mont ofwinter day
There are no recordsofab fg t WIthhISwife...'. monly sccn in Egyptian skulls.
~ost . sence romworkd Many jaw bones show evidence of small holes, which have been
Egyptians must have suffered I ue to toothache,although
25~ ~ubian interpreted as 'bore holes' made by dental surgeons to drain pus from
o skulls s annin ~~s~e:vte~roeusya.ndA-yceoamrprehensive stutdh~
abscesses. However, scholars such as Filce Leek have offered the
Mesolithic (9000 to 6060 BC)gta period from
bO~h llSt1~n ~AD alternative explanation thatthese holes were caused by the dissolution
shown a significant reduction i 55 to 1300) eras has
sa~ld of the bone by pus. So numerous foci of dental infection must have
years) and in facial masticatorn toot size (oneper cent perthou
undermined thehealth of many peopleand resultedin widespreadhali
shift In diet from that of th h Ymusculature and proportions. A
s~al~nter-gather~rtow~rds tosis. A recipe for a breathsweetener(frankincense, myrrh, cinnamon
resulted in the selection of carbohydrates
bark and other fragrant plants boiled with honey and shaped into pel-
consequent reduction in chew' r, more canes-resistant teeth with a
mg apparatus. ' lets) was also used as ahouse fumigator.
18
Egyptian Medicine Health andhygiene 19
Personal cleanliness and the appearance were considered to be ex
Although age at marriage varied,.Egyptian
tremely important. Soap was unknown in Egypt but a refreshing body girls usually married at twe~ve or t~Irteen and
scrub could be made from a mixture of powdered calcite, red natron,
the boys a yearor so older, immediately upon
salt and honey (Eb 715). Rich and poor washed frequently and before
reaching sexual maturity. A study of709 D¥
every meal. Much use was madeofointments tokeep the skin soft, and nastic skulls fr0111 sites at Asyut and Gebelein
unguents and aromatic oils were considered extremely important. At (housed in the Institute ofAnthropology, Tu
~anquets
and on ?theroccasions men and women wore lumpsofanimal rin) revealed the average age atdeath to be 36
fa~
on top of their wigs or hair (figure 56). These were impregnated
w~th years. . bi f
perfume and, as the fat melted, it ran down the body, drenching it
The Egyptians delighted m.the irth 0, a
WIth scent..Deodorants were made from ground carob-pod pulp (Eb child and probably breast-fed into the subse
709) or a mixture ofincense andporridge rolled into pellets (Eb 711). quent pregnancy (figure 5). Wea~th~ women
Women shaved their bodies with bronze razors and used tweezers to employed wet nurses. Pr~scr~ptIons for
pluck out stray hairs. A prescription for a depilatory included the galactagogucs (substances",:,hlchI~crease the
boiled and crushed bones ofa bird mixed with fly dung, oil, sycamore flowofmilk) may be found 111theEbersPapy
JUIce, gum and cucumber (Hearst Papyrus ISS). Men were generally rus (Eb 836, 837). However, the likelihoodof
clean-sha~en;
often the head was also shaved. Herdsmen who guarded all live births nourishing to adulthood was
th~
cattle In the pastures were the exception and were often depicted small and giving birth broughtys ~wn ~az~
wI.thbear?s. Inaclimate where parasites, fleas and lice were plentiful, ards. Thehieroglyphs meaning to gI~eblr.th
~
hair p\ovlded natural and attractive habitat and lice eggs have been provide information about the way Egyptian
found 111the hairofmummies. womenhadtheirbabies(figures6and 7). They
t~anslations
Although of various texts have suggested the symptoms
adopted a squatting position rather than a re- 5. Glazed tcrracoua vase
ofvenereal disease, there is no clearevidence for its existence. How cumbentonefor the actual birthand ~hey ~sed depicting a woman breast
ever, prostitution was an established aspect of sexual behaviour and,
abirthingstoolorbirthingbrickswhichraised feeding. Such vases were
although adultery was officially condemned, there is textual evidence the body sufficiently above the ground to al- probably inlended to hold
fro~~ Deir el-Medina of both adultery and abortions. A man might human milk which was used
hav~ low roomfor the newborninfant. TheWestcar as a constituent in remedies.
legltlInatPeOlsys~sslOanmistresswhileheremained unmarried but polygamy Papyrus (c.1650-1550 BC~ says of the infant: (Courtesy of the Musce du
and .the of concubines appear to be rare outside the royal 'They washed it, cut ?ff ItS,navel cord, and Louvre, Pans. AF.1660.)
family and high society. The evidence from Deir el-Medina suggests
laid it on the bed ofbncks... . .... ., .
~
that wor:nan's legal status regarding marriage, ownership of property Studies of mummies have revealed horrific blrt~1l1~un~s.w~Ichwer~
and inheritance was equal to that of her husband. Consanguineous fatal in somecases and undoubtedlycaused chronic dls,~b~htyl.n others,
m~nagewas ~ar~ except amongst the royal family, where a Pharaoh Princess Hehenhit(EleventhDynasty)died soon after grving birth, She
might marry hISSIsteror daughter in order to establish an inheritance had a vesicovaginal fistulawhi~~must have caused severe postpar.tu~TI
through the female line.
infection. Thisdistressingcondition,commonly aresultofpoorcarem
Sexual deviation Such as bestiality, necrophilia and homosexuality
childbirth, was recognised in the
are not well attested. The Dream Books contain references to the
Kahun Papyrus: P)f~
coupling of men and women with certain animals but these dreams
Prescriptionforawomanwhos.e
~ere usually considered to be bad omens. Herodotus, writing in the
urine is in an irksome place: If
fifth centuryBC, observed thatthe beautifulwives ofnotablemen were
the urine keeps coming .., and
notdelivered tothe embalmers until several days afterdeath in orderto
shedistinguishes it, she wi11 be
lessen the chances of violation of their bodies. Lastly, there is the
like this forever ... (K 34).
apocryphal tale, written on a Twenty-fifth Dynasty papyrus (Louvre Thefirst successful operationfor 6. The hieroglyphsmeaning 'togive birth'
E25~51),?fth.ePh~aoh Pepi II (SixthDynasty), who enjoyed an illicit depict asquallingpos.il1on~nd theuse ~fa
vesicovaginal fistula was not pe~­
relatIonshIp WIthhISgeneral, Sisene. birthingstoolorbirthing hricks. (Drawing
formed until 1849 by the Amen- by HelenaJucschkc.)