Biological diversity and community lore in northeastern Thailand

17 Pages·1995·9.8 MB·English

by  Lyndon Wester

Summer
Ethnobiol 15(l):71-87 1995
/.
AND
COMMUNITY
BIOLOGICAL LORE
DIVERSITY
IN
NORTHEASTERN THAILAND
LYNDON
WESTER
Department Geography
of
Hawaii
University
of
and
SEKSON YONGVANIT
Faculty Humanities and Social Science,
of
Khon Kaen
University
ABSTRACT. economic
How much know
people currently
typically reassessed.
particiilar
will
tended
cultivated,
populations
subject,
this
and two
four villages, educational instituti<
Thailand, were asked identify certain food
to
information about each species. High school students scored signif:
university
People
but not receiving formal education, did best.
knew more than urban dwellers, and those
consistently
Ownership
undeveloped provinces scored highest.
c
knowledg'
become education,
The more opportunities available for
results suggest that as
knowledge and use of traditional
and urban continues,
as migration centers
to
needed
food More recognition of these as resources is in the
plants will decrease.
formal education system.
RESUMEN.— economicamente, se
Conforme comunidades se desarrollan
las
Ap La medida en que
rooT^oii'i-i i« rrat^ar^^ oi i7aTr«r lot; rpnirsns fradicionales. la
T-ir^,.
plantas alimenticias ind
particvdares
como una forma
son
vistas
Ae> pllait;
seguiran
moaerniza-
por
un transformado
en paisaje la
cultivadas, protegidas o silvestres
de pueblos dos
cuatro
poblacion y
cion Para abordar cuestion, se pidio a la
esta
.
que
de identificaran cie-
instituciones educativas de la region nordeste Tailandia
informacion
alguna
que proporcionaran
rtas plantas alimenticias en fotografia y
puntuaciones
medio lograron signifi-
sobre cada Los estudiantes a nivel
especie.
de edad
personas
bien
cativamente mejores que estudiantes universitarios, si
los
mejores
educaci6n formal obtuvieron los
comparable que no habian recibido
mas que
consistentemente
campo aldeas sabian
residtados. Las personas del y las
m5s
remotas
de provincias y
que venian las
los habitantes urbanos, y aquellas
mas La
puntuaciones
subdesarrolladas lograron altas.
las
inversamente
examen de conocimiento
WESTER & YONGVANIT
No.
Vol.
72 15, 1
que abren mas oportiinidades para educacion y continua migracion a los
se la
centros urbanos, conocimiento y uso de las plantas alimenticias tradicionales
el
En
disminuye. sistema de educacion formal se requiere major reconocimiento
el
como
de
plantas
estas reciu-sos.
—
RESUME. Alors que conununautes coimaissent un developpement economi-
les
typiquement Les con-
que, la valeur des ressources traditionnelles est reevalue.
naissances des plantes indigenes vivriere particulieres et les attitudes envers ces
comme moyen ou non
plantes sont vues de predire ces plantes feront partie
si
ou
de Talimentation locale et si elles continueront a etre cultivees, entretenues
resteront a Tetat sauvage dans un envirormement transforme par la modernite.
Afin d'elaborer ce sujet, e ete demander a la population de quatre villages et a
il
qux membres de deux institutions educationnelles de la region du Nord-est de
de
Thailande d'identifier, d'apres des photographies^ certaines plantes vivrieres et
donner des informations sur chaque espece. Les eleves de lycees ont nettement
mieux reussi que les etudiants d'universites, encore que les personnes d'un age
similaire mais n'ayant reiju aucime education scolaire ont eu plus de succ&s.
Fermiers et villageois en savaient constamment plus que les habitants des villes;
de plus ceux des provinces plus reculees moins d^veloppees se sont
les et les
averes les meilleurs. La possession d'lm moyen de transport ainsi que Texperi-
de
ence des voyages aux de Tepreuve con-
etcdent inversement
reliees resultats
naissance. Les resultats suggerent qu'avec davantage d' opportunity d' etudes
devenant
accessibles et avec la migration vers les centres urbains continuant, la
connaissance et Tutilisation des plantes vivrieres traditionnelles diminueront. II
est necessaire que dans le syst&me d' etudes conventiormelles celles-ci soit plus
recoimues conune
ressources.
INTRODUCTION
What know them
people about the plants they eat or see growing around
and
reflects the relationship between themselves and physical cultural
their
envirorunent. Economic development making dra-
in parts of Southeast Asia
is
popu-
matic improvement
material in the circumstances of large segments of the
by
However, and
lation. social cultural traditions that were once characterized
great geographical are being profoundly by new, typically
variability, altered
and
urban, and homogenization a
tastes values. This producing both
cultural
is
reduction in biological diversity as and even species are no longer
local varieties
tended or land use.
cultivated or changes
their habitat lost as a result of in
is
Villages beyond the end of the road, where former traditions may persist, are also
often refugia for germplasm upon which modern commercial agricultural sys-
may
tems ultimately depend (Soemarwoto Thus prosperity of the
the
et 1985).
al.
broader national or world economy raw material is
will suffer unless genetic
protected to allow development new commercial advanced varieties
of crops, or
of existing ones. Seed banks and play in
botanical gardens have a crucial role to
the preservation of taxa recognized by more biolog-
plant but there to
scientists, is
ical diversity than this. The fullest range of genetic diversity can be perpetuated
where
main-
cultural and
traditions practices associated with these plants are
tained as
well.
Summer JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY
1995 73
The knowledge
objective of this research to investigate the current levels of
is
where
about traditional food plants in Northeast Thailand, the population
is
experiencing rapid and economic change, order help guide conserva-
social in to
tion planning.
among many
knowledge communities
Loss of traditional agricultural in parts
Anderson
of the developing world has been noted. In Northern Thailand (1993)
among
has expressed concern about the perpetuation of such information the
community
Works Peruvian
Hill Tribes. (1990) has recorded that elders in a fre-
quently lament that the young are no longer interested in plants or gardens.
Maikhuri and Gangwar observed that among the Khasi and Garo tribes of
(1993)
Northeastern knowledge about plants by the young was judged to be poor.
India,
and
commonly
believed that children learn to recognize species, the skills for
It is
and
and they parents grandparents
collecting cultivating plants, as assist their
When
with work does not occur an important unifying
field (Brierley 1985). this
some
bond community weakened and heritage reduced as
the biological
for the
is
plant taxa are no longer cultivated, collected, or even recognized as resources.
communities have moved further along the path of economic
that
Ironically,
growing and the consump-
development the
discover that traditions relating to
and
foods— means fostermg cultural pride
tion of traditional plant valuable of
Unfortimately
modernization.
ethnic identity—have diminished in the process of
may many economic have
transition
only occur negative aspects of
this after
manifested themselves and many plant taxa have already been lost. In Hawai'i
but
was food indigenous people,
the staple for
taro Schott)
(Colocasia escuJenta [L.]
However,
the amount under has declined skice the nineteenth century.
cultivation
among Hawaiians there a reawakening to the value of the
at present native is
plant both for nutritional qualities and as a focus for ethnic pride. In the 1930s
its
could be
342 names were recorded, but only 67 existing taxa
of taro varieties
had ab^ady taken place
found by the suggesting that significant losses
1980s,
(Abbott
1992).
one approach record
knowledge, to
In the face of degradation of traditional is
from decreasing
and much and information as possible a
archive as material
much
However,
number who such knowledge. there is
of informants retain
still
and
language culture
that can not be recorded in written form, especially in a
and developed (Sarukhan
which evolved
from one the culture
different the in
An on maintaining the mtegrity of the
procedure to focus
1985). alternative
is
some
conservation,
encompassing human-ecological system. Referred to as in situ
aim
way since the to
see this as a more effective to protect genetic resources, is
environmen-
and
cultural
physical
conserve plant species within their established
preserving those
added advantage of also
conservation has the
tal setting. In
situ
by any
culture
appreciated
organisms whose not yet
value or ecological role
is
and
(Altieri Merrick
1987).
continmty
and
cultural
conservation
For such a contextual approach to biotic
commu-
and function of the
to be successful, the focus must be on the character
when
how and information
understand is
nity as a whole. important to
It is
not for
members community. often clear,
acquired and passed between of the It is
by mature
shared
on subject all
example, whether most information a particular is
who con-
known have a special role as
by
adults or only particular individuals,
& YONGVANIT
WESTER
No.
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74 15, 1
and knowledge (Padoch and de Jong Considering
servers depositories of 1991).
new now
how knowledge by
perpetuation of this affected external forces
is
shaping traditional societies, such as enhanced opportunity for formal education
and geographical mobility, of vital importance.
is
STUDY
SITE
been
The Himalayas mainland Southeast Asia have long
foothills of the in
(DeCandoUe
recognized as an important center of diversity for cultivated plants
1883; Vavilov 1926; Sauer 1952). Archaeological discoveries in Thailand have con-
firmed that inhabitants were lively experimenters with indigenous plant
its
resources by 10,000 BP (Gorman 1969; Glover 1977; Solheim 1970, 1972). The legacy
many
of an ancient Southeast Asian agricultural system survives in parts of rural
Upland swidden and gardens contain a
Thailand. agriculture traditional kitchen
diverse assemblage of crops and animals raised together in a complex struc-
component
and which one
ecosystem
turally functionally similar to a natural in
On
supports another (Fernandes and Nair Soemarwoto the basis
1986; et 1985).
al.
number Vavilov
of the large of cultivated varieties found in this general area,
was
suggested
(1926) a likely hearth of agriculture.
it
many
known food
Today, within Thailand, the Northeast region for the
is
from wild.
plants that are cultivated, casually tended, or collected directly the
Scholars often attribute the variety of organisms consumed as food to the eco-
nomic must be
poverty of a region where every possible source of sustenance
utilized. Although urbanized Central Thais view some of the typical foods in the
much
Northeast with some distaste, in fact the Northeast has contributed to the
and and Chuen-
richness Thai (Van Wester
diversity of cuisine Esterick 1992;
guansat
Thailand
remain Northeastern
eenerallv strone in
this region as the main site for this research. The 16 provinces
an
sTortheast region, referred to as Isaan, extend over area
known
as the Korat Plateau This
(Fie.
1).
more im
generally poor quality of the sandstone-derived and because the area is
also
soil,
by monsoon
ringed mountains air-
that extract moisture from rain-bearing
part
streams. This makes the plateau more drought than any other
susceptible
to
mainland own and culture
of Southeast Asia. Isaan has language
distinctive
its
within Thailand akin (Rambo Rural people,
to that of neighboring Laos
1991).
Lao
The
particularly in the northern part of Isaan, identify themselves as "Lao."
language more commonly which
spoken is
than standard Thai,
is in villages
Khmer,
learned
in school. Historically, the area has been under the control of
Mon,
Thai, and Lao kingdoms, today eth-
but the majority of the population is
nically Lao.
The mainly
staple food of the region glutinous Protein in diets comes
is rice.
from com-
mammals and
fish, insects, crustaceans, amphibians, and
is
reptiles,
plemented by wide vitanuns
a variety of plants that serve as the main sources of
and
minerals (Somnasang plants
wild
et al. 1986). People collect a multitude of
from and
the
forests often transplant more convenient locations.
useful soecies to
Summer JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY
1995
75
LAO
Chiang Mai
Si
NaBoi
Khan
Chianq
N&ngKh
T
Nakhon
KohKhon
Nong
Phal
Phanonn
Udon
r\ii
^7^11
Thani
•Sakon Nakhon
y
\ ^KhamPerm
Sawang Daen
Din
^^uan^«
? *s^' ^^"fl
KhonKaen
TH AILA^ND
akhon
Ratchasima
(Korat)
Bangkok
BODI
CA
A
PROVINCES
Nong
Khai
Buriram
RolEt
Chaiyaphum
Sakon Nakhon
Kalasin
Khon Kaen Sisaket
Sunn
Loei
Maha Sarakham Ubon Ratchathani
Phanom
Nakhon Ubon Than!
Nakhon Ratchasima Yasothon
\
Thailand
Northeast
in
FIG. sites
1
Many
such home (Moreno-Black plants are identified
as gardens 1991).
and
seeds
Plants
domesticated ihaan) or a wild or forest {paa) variety.
and with
and between
within villages,
limited
most
mcome Although of
(Yongvanit
for a household et al. 1990). tl
produced
commercially
markets
ant materials offered for sale in is
WESTER & YONGVANIT
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Vol.
76 15, 1
—
TABLE
Plant species richness in Thai markets.
1.
Total species
Khon Kaen 106
Northeast Region
Nakhon
Sakon 2 93
ThaBo3
92
Nong
Khai 90
Khon Kaen 85
2
Night Market 82
Loei,
Nakhon Fathom 80
78
Korat
Sawang Daen Din 77
Chiang Khan 76
Day Market 74
Loei,
Sakon Nakhon 73
Udon
Thani 69
Chiang Mai 69
Si
ThaBo4
69
ThaBo
65
1
ThaBo2
65
Kranuan 54
Kham
Perm 35
Aw
Other Dtaw Gaw, Bangkok 115
Pak Bangkok 107
Khlong,
Aw
Dtaw Gaw, Bangkok 101
Bangkeng, Bangkok 98
Aw
Dtaw Gaw, Bangkok 91
Khlong Bangkok 89
Thoey,
Kuala Lumpur, 72
Malaysia
57
Narathiwat, Southern Region
AVERAGE
80.0
who
and vegeta
typically several traders specialize in the fruits, roots, flowers, leaf
which
bles reflect the variety and character of the former subsistence agriculture
METHODS
of
In the absence of other information, observing the composition
statistical
what
merchandise way
offered for sale in a market an indirect of determining
is
kinds of food are available or preferred an and Ruddle 1986).
in area (Ishige
we
the
Accordingly, surveyed mostly in
fresh plant foods 20 produce markets,
in
were
Northeastern region (Table Some markets Bangkok and elsewhere
in
1).
We
included for comparison. prepared rapid recording
a hst of expected species for
We
of those by
identified sight in markets. Rarer species were of special interest.
recorded names and
later
local collected voucher specimens whenever possible for
which
As
identification. were
plants by
often represented only juvenile leaves,
be
typically lack crucial diagnostic number have yet to
characters, a of species
Summer JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY
1995
77
—
TABLE
used
2. Plant species in identification
test.
Percent Frequency
correct in
Common
name name
Botanical (Family) indent markets
Marsilea crenata (Marsileaceae) phak waen 75.2 7
Cratoxylum spp. (Guttiferae) phak 62.6 15
tin
Barringtonia subangulata (Barringtoniaceae) kra don, chik 61.7 3
Trapa incisa (Trapaceae) kra chip 46.5 2
Caesalpinia mimosoides (Leguminosae) khayaa, chalueat 40.6 8
poun
Cissus hastata (Vitidaceae) hop hep, 23.3 1
Hydrocharis morsus-ranae (Hydrocharitaceae) nong ma, pae, tao 21.8 4
som mong
Garcinia spp. (Guttiferae) 19.8 3
Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae) mara, phak hai 19.2 1
mon
Perilla fnitescens (Labiatae) ngaa khee 0.0 2
^ This was not the common weedy plant whose leaves are found in most markets or the domesticated
from
bitter melon cultivated for fruits but a variety with sharply ribbed fruit possibly collected the
its
known and immature
wild. The ripe fruit of this species is to be toxic, but the leaves fruits are eaten in
India and the Far East apparently without effect (Purseglove 1968).
ill
wet months
Markets were surveyed during the season in the
satisfactorily identified.
We
some
surveyed markets
and August morning
of July as early in the as possible.
more from day day and various times of day.
than once to at
to assess variation
To measure degree which information about
obtain an objective of the to
younger
the generation,
traditional subsistence food plants being transferred to
is
we among These populations
populations.
conducted a of 795 interviews six
total
were: Khon Kaen University, high school students at a rural
uruversity students
at
Nakhon
Sakon
high Sawang Daen Din center within Pro-
school in (a district
Na
Kok Khon and Bon (Nong Khai
and
vince), villagers in four rural settlements;
Sawang Daen Din (Sakon
and
Thong district
Province); Sai (Kalasin Province);
two
Nakhon The named population consisted of sub-
Province)
last
(Fig.
1).
Nong and second from several
populations, one from the village of Phai the
we subpopulations separately, as will
some these
villages nearby. In cases treated
be
discussed below
knowledge, a set of high quality
The photographs depicted
was
photographs prepared.
of 10 selected plants
we produce
leaves, young shoots, or fruits of food plants that observed for sale in
are found in other
markets (Table All plants used for the identification test
2).
appHed
sometimes
names
are to
parts of Thailand, where distinctive regional
them We very common species, but selected a
(Smitinand did not include
1980).
commonly markets. Plants not
range found moderately to rarely in
of plants
were
system were excluded, as
believed be indigenous agricultural
to part of the
The presence of diagnos-
species produced by cormnercial agriculture.
large scale
pro-
influenced the choice of plants for the test
tic visual characters of species
We whether sub-
appearance
cedure. selected two species very similar in to test
them from photographs.
could
jects differentiate
WESTER & YONGVANIT
No.
78 Vol.
15, 1
was and
Each subject asked to identify each plant, provide son\e information
about The ability to supply a commonly used name for a plant was assumed to
it.
We
some
be a measure of a person's familiarity with also asked subjects for
it.
and whether
personal information, such as age, place of birth, educational level,
home
was urban town an
their rural (a village or farm) or (a or city). In effort to
obtain some measure of mobility, and so determine experience beyond their
owned
homes, subjects were asked what transport vehicles their family (bicycle,
motor bike, car, or truck) and whether they had ever visited the main cities of the
Northeastern region (Nakhon Ratchasima or Korat) and the neighboring North-
em
region (Chiang Mai), the national capital (Bangkok), or a foreign country.
who
Field assistants were native Thai speakers conducted interviews in that
all
language. The high school students were asked complete information in a
to
by Hired
classroom setting a teacher as part of a course in environmental studies.
assistants conducted other interviews individually. Assistants included stu-
all
from Khon Kaen and
dents University already trained in interview techniques,
were
others trained specifically for this project. The university students surveyed
we
on
selected randoinly the university campus. In each of the villages surveyed,
mapped number
the location of houses and selected a predetermined of
all
most was
houses. In cases only one person from each household interviewed.
A
names was and
of plant compiled from given interviews
list the respoiises at
compared
with pubhshed records (Smitinand 1980; Bunkerd et 1982; Vidal 1959).
al.
—
We
asked two Khon Kaen Univer-
four
local authorities professional botanists at
and two
sity local informants with post-graduate degrees biology or agricul-
in
—
which
ture to consider the full of names given for each plant and to indicate
list
names names
were on which
appropriately applied. These experts generally agreed
were
used names other
correctly for each plant. Other supplied usually referred to
number any
species. In a small of cases, subjects used names that did not appear in
were unknovm we
reference source
or
to the authorities consulted.
AND
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
The were
market
surveys yielded a total of 233 species, including 65 that
found ranged
in only one of the markets. Total numbers of species per market
from
11 5 to 35, with an average of 80 (Table This compares to about 70 fresh
1
)
.
The
produce
species typically found in a large supermarket in the United States.
markets
richest in species tended to be those in Bangkok that catered to foreigners
and
or Thais with more
cosmopolitan and where temperate fruits
tastes certain
A
vegetables were being offered for sale in addition to traditional Thai foods.
number Klong
considerable
of subsistence food plants was found especially in
Aw
Daw Gaw
Thoey and where
markets Bangkok, which areas
of are close to
recent immigrants from that
country areas have Levin has observed
settled. (1992)
"coimtry foods" but in
are popular in the rural areas of Southern Thailand,
Bangkok
found
are usually regarded as unsophisticated However, she also
fare.
where
instances such were Bangkok.
plants considered exotic luxury items in
There was some
Those vis-
variation in markets surveyed on days.
different
day markets
ited later in the usually yielded lower The bulk produce in
counts. of
comes
from
large-scale commercial plants is
erowers. so nrpdirtable of
a set
JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY
Sununer 1995 79
—
TABLE
3. Variation in score with gender.
Male Female
Number Number Average
Average
Age
score
score
219
10-19 2.8
121 2.4
20-29 148 2.9
118 2.7
37
30-39 6.8
21 6.5
32
40-41 19 6.9 7.1
50-59 34 7.4
16 7.4
60-69 9 7.2
8 7.4
4 7.8
70-79 3 5.3
80-89
90-99
0.0
1
483
TotaP 307
was
^ age or gender not recorded for five subjects.
The encountered frequently are typically
most markets. species less
lable in
We
Tha Bo
surveyed market,
supplied by farmers on an informal basis.
e local
am
and
consistently
approximately
8:00
[ong Khai Province, several times at
When was surveyed am, however, an
6:00
between and at
70
65 species.
id it
we any
during
did not see
were observed, including five
20 species
itional
common
commodities
Moreno-Black has observed that less
survey. (1991)
r
when
day or 5:00 am),
brought market early in the (4:00
typically to the
town. These are sold or
from
village to
iucers can obtain cheapest transport
demand commodities.
the
ed very quickly, an indication of the for
off
photo-recognition test of ten plants,
which included a
In the interview survey,
Marsilea
was very distinctive fern
the
most recognized species
freauentlv
crenata
which
were
response
was The patterns of
not strong.
ability of subjects to recognize
it,
Two because of their sim-
selected
however. species
similar in populations,
all
out
among most recognized
readily
were the
and
ilarity (Cratoxylon Barringtonia)
2% The
only of the time.
was mistaken for Cratoxylon
of the set of ten. Barringtonia
This suggests that people, at
two out of 795.
reverse occurred only instances
in
with
photographs of plants
were interpret
within populations, able to
least these
some
facility.
men
women higher than (Table 3).
sUghtly
In almost aU age groups scored
about 70
age
with subject until
There was a general tendency for score to increase
One explanation
when men showed sharp decline. possible is
a
years, scores of
m
past
perhaps the
women.
men Alternatively,
than
that earUer
lose their faculties
men women, which
and
by is
was knowledge learned
dichotomy
there a in the
we
interviewed
only
now However,
since
age
only evident the older classes.
in
pattern of
the
verify
sample desirable to
eight people age group, a larger is
in
this
are particularly
however, the elderly
decHning male knowledge. that
clear,
It is
& YONGVANIT
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No.
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80 15, 1
cc
O
o
CO
<30 <40 <50 <60 <70 <80
AGE
Khon Khon
Kaen Thong Koh
Univ
Sai
e-
Na Bon Sawang
Nong H.S
Phai
—
2
with
FIG. ^Variation in scores attained in plant identification test age.
who
important as depositories of information. This supported by informants
is
much
assert that they had learned about plants from their grandmothers.
two
In marked contrast to the scores of village populations were those of the
whom Although
populations of students, all of were less than 30 years old (Fig. 2).
scores in both student populations showed an increase with age (Table those of
4),
high
younger
imiversity students were extremely low even compared the
to
school students from the Sawang Daen Din. About 44% of the university students
most
came from farms and homes, background subgroup
village so the of this is
directly compaxable to that of the high school students. However, even the uni-
students
from homes
versity students rural did not score as high as high school
who
remained in the less urban environment of a small town as opposed to a city
would from rural
(Table 5). This imply either that university-bound students
when
do
areas not acquire knowledge they forget
traditional readily, or that it
they leave the rural
setting.
geograph-
among
Variations in scores are also apparent students from different
bom
Of Khon 76% were in
ical origins. the students surveyed Kaen
at University,
Those
the Northeast, but all regior\s of Thailand were represented in the sample.
from
from
the Northeast did than from Students
better students other regions.
The
Bangkok and
the South had number (Table
the least of correct identifications 6).
with
higher scores of students from may
the Northeast part familiarity
in reflect
the local environment and food plants that are most popular in that region. It