Table Of ContentAppleDesig_n_
BY PAUL KUNKEL! PHOTOS BY RICK ENGLISH
men_- year . the personal computer
n d!l:y re er•ed for hobbyists to one of the
·our time. The one company most respon
rrmuon i Apple Computer. As the first firm
in a molded plastic case, the first to offer a
1 uter ""ith a graphical user interface, the first to
h: hing. multi-media and handheld computing,
mcorporate a consistent industrial design lan
e.-i' products. Apple has spearheaded or popular
e\·ery de ign element found on the modern PC. In
Apple ha built the most creative and successful
e 1, n group in the world-responsible for more
r~ 111 recent years than any other Fortune 100 firm.
rate A.pple· twentieth anniversary, AppleDesign pro
ure m, ide look at the Industrial Design Group, exam
- ·he role thi small team of creative individuals has played
e n e of Apple from a Silicon Valley garage to a billion
r corporation. It details the formation of the Group,
e their method for turning great ideas into even greater
uu . re,·eals many design concepts and products that
er reached the marketplace, and offers a glimpse at the
mph J.nd turmoil that results when creative desire meets
occ1->ionally collides with) corporate reality.
1th m re than 400 color illustrations and detailed discussion
more than 100 products, design concepts and works-in
- e . .-1.ppleDesign provides the most thorough examination
o..: rporate design group ever published.
F m the :VJacintosh to the PowerBook, the Newton
_c.-Pad. the eMate and the just-released Twentieth
I\er :.uy \lacintosh, Apple's designers have given us some
• e m t compelling and enduring products of our time.
r- not only enriches the lives of more than 50
A pie u er "''orldwide, it influence the computer
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
\'ilhen \\Tiring a work of non-fiction. there is an old saying: .. ·rhe first plus sources who asked not robe mentioned by name. Final thanks g
time a story is told is truth. The second time is fiction." With an org;t- to Rick English and his staff at Hick English Pictures. "·hose vision n<
nization as large and mythical as Apple Computer. I sometimes won- only brought the designs to life but inspired the project at e\·ery stage
dered whether I \\CIS hearing fact or fantasv. only to discover that the
more outl;111dish the story or more improbable the fact, the more like- At Graphis. I would like to thank Martin Pedersen for his unflincl-
h· it "·as to be true. In the course of my research. I inteiTie\\·ed ing support. my editors Claire Ilayclen and Kirsten Keppel!, .Joh
dozens of indi,·iduals "·ho played a part in the design of Apple's .Jeheber. .Jenny Francis. jack Crager. and Peggy Chapman. The boo
products. Unfortunately, I could not find even·one. Nor would every- could ne,·er have been finished without you.
one speak to me. Those who did revealed a world that remains hid-
den even to many professionals. describing in detail how great indus- Trademark and Disclaimer Information. Apple. the Apple log<
trial designs are transformed into even greater products. Piecing this AppleShare. AppleTalk, EtherTalk. ImageWriter. Laser\Vrite
story together forced me to rely upon the recollection of a great manv Loca!Talk. Macintosh, ~lac. and J\lultifinder are registered trad<
people. both inside and outside the firm, \Yithout \Yhom this book marks of Apple Computer, Inc. AppleColor. AppleDesign. Appl
could nor have been wrirren. To those I list below, I offer my thanks. Desktop Bus. Apple SuperDrive, BookCover. Centri~
Firstly. to the current members of the Apple Industrial Design ClassroomConnection, Duo, DuoDock. eMate, Finder. Lisa. GeoPor
Group: especiall\' its director .Jonathan h-e: Daniele Oe luliis: Thomas Macintosh Quadra. Message Pad. NC\\·ton. Ne~non InterConnect. th
:\Ieyerhof'fcr: Chris Stringer: Jay ~Ieschter: 8art Andre: Cal Seid: Marc Ne\\·ton light bulb symbol. Performa, Pippin. PowerBoo~
van de Lou; Danny Coster: Richard llowanh and Doug Satzker: Ken PO\YerMac, QuickDraw, QuickTime. Style\Xiriter. System 7 an
Pro\'ost and Rob Rellicitti: Ron Moiler: Jane Taylor. Barbara TrueType arc trademarks of Apple Computer. Inc. Classic is a regi:
Thompson. Michelle T3urns. and Ria Monroe for their encouragement rered trademark licensed to Apple Computer. Inc. MacDr:l\'
and assistance. MacPaint and Mac\XIrite are registered trademarks of Clar
Former members or the Apple Industrial Design Group: especial- Corporation. lBtvJ, Po\\'erPC. ThinkPad, IB~·l-PC. PC-XT. OS 2 an
ly Bob Brunner. without \\'hom this book could not have begun: ThinkPacl are trademarks of the Intern:Hional Business J\Jachint
Ray Riley: Gavin Ivester and Lawrence Lam: Susanne Pierce: Tim Corporation. NuBus is a trademark of Texas Instruments. Erhern•
Parsey: Masamichi lJdaga\\'a: Larry 13arbera: Jim Ste\\·:ll't. Mark and Xerox are registered trademarks of Xerox Corporation. Adob•
Pruill. Grant Ross. Jr.· Tom Jacobson: J\like Pizzuti and Hob Rarnerte. PostScript and Page!llaker are trademarks of Adobe Systems. In•
To the e:trly designers: Jerry J\Ianock: Terry Oyama: 13ill Dresselhaus Microsoft, ~·IS-DOS. \Vinclmvs and Windows 95 are registered tradt
and Ken Campbell. Clive T"·yman, David Hodge, Rob Gemmell and marks of Microsoft Corporation. Pentium is a trademark of Into
Bill MacKenzie. Current and former Apple product designers. tool- Corporation. @Mark and @\'\lorlcl are trademarks of Bandai Americ
makers, engineers and sa\'ants: Richard Jordan. Tom Bentley. Laszlo Inc. Internet is a trademark of Digital Equipment Corporation. il
Zeidek. Burrell Smith. Ben Pang. Ste\'<: Balog. Rill 13ull. llobert other trademarks, protected names and seiYice marks are the prOJ
Elliman. John E . .Johnston. \\Iii Oxford, Dexter Francis. Mike JV!ilo. erty of their respective owners. Code-names cited in this book a1
13etsy Diaz. Don Porter. John Tang .. Julie iVIcDonald. Pat Jackson. meant for internal non-official use only. Use of such code-name~
\Vayman Lee. Mike Dhuey. Brian Berkeley. John Fitch. Jon Krako\\·er. for historical purposes only and is not meant to infringe upon ar
Ilarold Welch. Prabir Sarkhar and Ste\·e Wozniak. who ,,·ill ahYays trademark or protected name. All attempts have been made to COI
belong in a class by himself. Current and former Apple executives tact and obtain permission from photographers .,_·hose \YOr
who shared their time. including: Satjiv Chalil. H.L. Cheung and appears in this book. Any photographer or rights-bolder ,,-h
Howard Lee: .John Sculley. Jean-Louis Gassce. Michael Spindler and believes that previously-protected photographic work has hee
chairman and CEO. Or. Gilbert Amelio: marketing managers Robert used in this book without permission should contact the publishc
Kondrk . .John Kelly. D<11·e Turnbull and Andrew Scoular: Kim Cooper Apple Computer. Inc. does not \\·arrant. guarantee. endorse. n<
and Kevin Saul at Apple Legal: Jim Oliver: Katie Cotton, Gabi makes no representations concerning any fact. error. inclusioi
Schindler and Tami Begasse in Corporate Public Relations: and pho- omission, misstatement or opinion contained herein, nor make ar
tographcrs Pam Stanton, J3e,·erley Harper and Daniel De Souza. representation concerning any third party, individual or firm.
Thanks also go to Chee Pearlman at //J J'vlagazine, who gave the pro-
ject a gentle nudge early on: Hartmut Esslinger. for his generosity
and trust: Stephen Peart: Tony Guido. ~like Nuttall. Bill 1\Ioggridge. Copyright © 1997 Paul Kunkel
Paul Bradley. ,'vlark Biasotti. Chris Lowe, .Jim Yurchenco, J'\aoto
Fukasawa. Terry Christensen. Gerard Furhershaw, Jeff Smith, Dave Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Laituri. Gilbert Wong. Ken Wood. Urad Bissell. Doug Pauon. Noland Main Enlly under Litle:
AppieDesign:_T he Work of the Apple Industrial Design Group
\'ogr. Eric Chan. Rick J\kado"·s. Jack Hokanson. :'\ick Butler. Giuliano
1. Design-United States-History-20th Centuty.
Molineri. 1\lark Johnson. Peter ~hiller. Sue Booker. .Jennelle Schwarz.
2. Apple Computer- Design.
Herbert Pfeifer. Paul Montgomery. Tucker Viemeister, Tom Dair. the
I. Kunkel. Paul. II. Apple Computer. Inc.
st~Iff at the San Francisco Museum of 1\lodern Art. the Museum of 97-71233
J\lodern Art. :'\e\\· York. the Cooper-He"·itt Museum of American ISBN 1-888001-25-9
Design. Ne\Y York. Kristina Goodrich at the Industrial Designers Copyright © 1997
Society of America, D~11·id Gresham. Ralph Caplan: Lex Lally. Rocky. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
T I ME LINE
150 million years B.C. computer. the Mark L "-l~ch rc:Kls 1960. About 600 computer-s are in 1972. Alan l\.1y de1·eloi1S Sm:illTalk progr.unming langmge.
Dinosaurs roam the Ea11h. and stores progr<uns on punchecl use in the Lnited States. SmaUTalk, a breakthrough d1e gr~1pl~ctluser interface. d1e
paper tape. progranuning language for use iJ1 Alto and Star computers and ot net
100,000 B.C. Homo sapiet" hegin 1962. lv:m Sud1erbncl develops pet;;onal computers. "orking system kno1vn as Ed1erner.
using intelligence to lluther their February 12, 1944. Jerrold SketchPad. a progr:Im Uiat enabled
goals. Manock. Apple's fu-st inclusuial d1e computer and user to interact 1973. Xerox !'ARC researchers February 12, 1980. Apple goes
design manager (1977-1983) and using gmpl~cal representatiorls on implement the idea of om·Japping public in the largest initial public
5,000 B.C. 1l1e abacus. IYhich co-designer of d1e ~Iacintoslt is a display. "·indoll's on a personal computer stock otfeting since Ford Motor
resembles the a1idunetic unit of l::orn in Los Angeles. clisplav. Compam·.
a modern computer. is dereloped 1963. Stanford resetrcher Douglas
in China. June 5, 1944. 1-lamnut Esslinger, Englelxut preclia5 rl~tt compmers January, 1975. Intel itmocluces d1e 1981. 1l1e number of hosts on
Apple's second indll'mial design \\'Otlld one cbv allo"· -syml::ols to 8008 micra. processor: MilS umds d1e Internet no"· exceecls I. 000.
2,500 B.C. llle \Yater clock is manager (1983-86). is born in be ammgecl. mm·ecl. stored [and] d1e Alt:tir. a personal computer
im·ented in China. Beurren-Su1unersfeld. Germam·. operated upon ... in ,·ef)' r<lpid tor the hobbyist market: Stc,·c Jobs January 19, 1981. Jenv J\Ianock
response ... couplecl to a three begins :mending Homebre"· joins d1e ~Iacintosl; team and
131 o A.D. 1l1e mechanical clock is July, 1945. Vanne1·ar Bush dimensional color clispla1· "·id~n meetings with Wozniak. ll'ho lx:giJIS his initial design under
inrented in Europe. publishes the anicle, "As We 1\Iay which sopl~sticated images IYill be begins designing his om1 1x:rsonal project leader jef lbskin.
1l1ink." proposu1g d1e develop constl1tC1ecl. the computer ["·ill] computer. ll'i~ch 11·ill bter become
1637. Rene Descanes de,·elops ment of a small computer-like execute a "·ide ,·:uiety of processes the Apple 1.. August, 1981. nJM itmcxluces its
the principles of rational skepti cJe,·ice that Gill store and in res1::onse to human direction." first 1x:rsonal computer. Lsing an
cism (His conclusion: ·je pense. manipulate "·orcls and picnrrcs. 1976. 1l1e "desktop" metaphor ~1tel n~croprocessor. an -open"
donee je suis. ") March, 1964. lBM ulU'OCluccs is first used in Xerox PARCs lwchYare design and system soft
1946. John Eckan and Jolm System 360. \Yhich solidities its Oflket1lk soliware. '"u·e supplied bv a small Seattle
1692. Blaise Pascal petfc'Cts the Maudlle)• dtwlop ENIAC die leadership in mainliames and based fum called ~1icrosoft: the
Pascaline. the \Yorld's lirst "-odd's fi1st li.rllv elearor~c geneml miJ~compute1-s. April1, 1976. Stephen \\ozniak. lB~I-PC is a significant success.
automatic calculating machine. Jllll]JCIOC ctigittl mmputer. SteYen 1'. Jobs and Ron \\;t, 11e
June, 1964. Douglas Englebatt found AJ;ple Computer u1 . 1981. Xerox inrrocluces the Star
1694. Gottflied Lcibnitz perfects the 1947. \X'IIIiam Schocklel' Walter im·ents a handheld directional Cupenino. CA. computer. a commercial rersion of
Leibnitz Computer. a calculating ma Btitl1in andjolm Arden im·ent the device. called a mouse. tor con d1e prototYJJe Ste,·e jobs 5.1\\' at
chine that multiplies by performing transistor. a tinv solid-state cle1·ice u·olling a computer's on-screen May, 1976. jobs and Wozr~ak sell PARC in 1979: it fails.
repetitire additions, a technique still that llmctions like a vacuum nrbe. interbce. their tirst Apple I computers to the
used in many modern computers. but at a much laster rare; the tran B)~eShop. January 1982. Miousoli assembles
sistor launches a revolution in Augus1, 1964. Gordon Moore. one a team of software developers to
1726. Jonathan S1Yifl desoibes :1 mio·oclcaronics that in nrrn leacls of the founders of E1u-child Semi January 3, 1977. \Xbzniak.,lobs procluce applications for the
machine that automatically "'lites to smaller. cheaper. more powerlltl conduaor. predicts d1at iJ1tegratecl and A.C "Mike" Markkula incorpo Macintosh. cocle named SA.\'D. The
books in Gullil'ers hm·ei~. computers. circuits "ill double u1 complexity rate Apple. Wozt~:tk becomes n:m1e "·:ts cleti1·ecl tl·om Steve Jobs'
each year: at the same time. d1e employee number one: Jobs vision. iJ1 "-J~ch sand (from which
1781. Richard ArkiY1ight builds the 1950. Eckut and Mauchley chel ptice per unit of performance" ill becomes employee numlx:r zero. silicon comes) is placecl in one
llrst hydraulic spinning facton•. op UNIVAC. the fu-st conunerdally fall of half e1-er1· ,·ear. His smemem end of a factory. and a finished
"·hich leads to the decline of tmrket progr:munable mmputer. is later knom1 as 'Ioore·s Lt\\·. March, 1977. PARC rese'Jrcher computer comes out d1e od1er encl.
agralian-based economy and the Alan Ka1· preclicts in his ess,11· SA.\ D kickswned 1\ Iicrosoft's tirst
rise of the Industrial Remlution. 1952. IB~I's ftrst procluaion line 1965. ARPA sponsors a snKh· on a -~'tilToelectronics and the Personal '-ersion of d1e WuiCIOIYS OJlel<lting
c'OmJJLrter. the moclel 701. is mar cooperative net11-ork of time-shar Computer" that "just as the sYstem. umcxluced in M:trch. J9 8-!.
1805. J-~1 jacquard devises keted tor scientific use. When ing computers called ARPANET Inclustlial Revolution made
a method for m~aving using a asked how many compute1-s the JXlssible d1e personal book .. the Aprii·May, 1982. jeny Manock.
punched carcls, an teclmique that \YOrlcl "·oulcl need. IBM chairmm 1967. ffiM announces d1at it "·ill microelectJ·onic revolution of the Terf)· O)':una and Steve jobs
"·ill be employed years later in the T J Warson predicted: "No more no longer sell sottiY:tre and hard 1970s \\'ill bring :tbout the personal establish the basic design lor d1e
clevelopmem of early computers. than three." "me in :1 single unit: the computer computer of the I9 80s with suffi ~'l1CUltosh.
software business is born. cient stor~tge and speed to supJXlll
1832. Cho1rles Babbage develops 1957. 1l1e USSRl aunch Sputnik: in l~gh-hcl computer languages January, 1983. Apple wweils Ule
the Anal) tical Engine, the first response. d1e US Defe1~ Depan February 27, 1967. Jonathan h·e. and inter:tctive gt:tpl~c dispbys ... usa Oftlce Computer. Finisheclut~ts
de1·ice that can be progr:munecl to ment forms d1e Advancecl Director of d1e Apple Industrial begiJ1 sl~pping in May: but itsl~gh
soh-e a ,·arie(\· of logical and Reseu·ch Projects Agency (ARPA) Design Group (19%- ) is born in April, 1977. At the first ammal \Vest plice ancllack!tLster performance
computational problems. to establish the U.S. lead in science London. Coa<;t Computer Fau·e in San result in a tepid reception.
and technology '"l~ch lltels com Francisco, Apple Llll\·ei!s d1e Apple
1890. I-Ierman Hollelith. incorpo puter resetrch. 1967-8. ARPA researchers Alan Kay ll. "-J~ch becomes d1e Erstest-selling March 17, 1983. HaiT!llUt Esslinger
rating ideas fromjacqtmcl'sloom and Ed Cheadle thelop FIL\:. d1e personal computer to c~tte.1l1e PC and BIB present d1eir Sno"·\X1lite
and Babbage's Anal)1iGtl Engine. April 26, 1958. Robett Bmrmer. tlrst computer to feanrre gr<tpl~cs revolution i5 nOll' finnlv under 11'011'. concepts to Apple's l::oard and top
patents -an elecrro-mech;mical Direaor of the Apple Indusuial and 11indo"·ing Gtpabiliry. management. EssliJ1ger's 11-ork
information machine" that uses Design Group ( 1990-1995) is born June, 1977. 1l1e t1rst Apple II pte·ails.
punchecl cards. SLx years later. in San Jose. California. 1969. ARPA\ lff goes on-line " id1 computer leaves the bctotv: Regis
Holle1id1 torms the Tabulating 4 host computers. McKemla an clirecou· Rob Janov April, 1983. john Scullev joim
Machine Company. "-l~ch "·ill 1958-59. Jack Kilby and Robett designs the six-color Apple logo. Apple as President and CEO.
later become IBM. 1\'oyce cl~velop d1e microcl~p. 1969. Intel CoqXJmtion begins
ll'hich in ntrn leatls to smaller. de,·elopment of d1e first n~cro Faii·Winter, 1977·78. Dan Blicklin May.June, 1983. jobs asks
1904. Jolm Ambrose Fleming more J::O"·erllll computers. processor. the -10<H. and Bob Fwtbton m~ate \ 'isie<uc. Esslinger to subn~t a SnmY\\'I~te
patents the ,-acuum tube. the fu·st PC -based electronic design for the 1\lacinrosh that could
1959. Gmce Murrav Hopper. an 1970. Xerox llmcls d1e Palo Alto sprctclsheer. for d1e Apple IT. tit m·er d1e existing ch:tssis. but
1925. \ lmne1 ·ar Bush and earlY ,vlark I progr:tmmer. devel Resetrch Center 11id1 the goal of the design is not used.
co-11urkers de1'elop the fu-st ops COBOL a computer language ciel'elopiJlg "Ule paperless office of 1979. ARJ'AJ\TI establishes its first
analog computer. knom1 as that uses swncltrd English 11-orcl5. the li.mrre": m·er Ule ne>.t ten years. ulternationallink emh·ing from July, 1983. Esslinger's firm frog
the DitTerential Analyzer. PARC researcher-s irwem d1e basic a single nem-ork into a .. ne111-ork design presents a second set of
1960. TI1eorist_ICR Licklider technologies u·m "'Otlld launch UlC of networks ... concepts. called -sno"· \\~lite
1940. 1l1e B1itish computer "·ar introduces the concept of inter JX:l>Ol4tl computer uiCit~>T!y. Illu·e-to jobs :mel Sculley. jobs
effon. knom1 as Lltra, creates the active computing in his essay Summer-Fall, 1979. Apple gi,·es frogclesign res1::onsibility lor
first opet~ttional computer. code "Man Computer Symbiosis." 1970. Bill Fernandez ulU'OCiuces researcher jef Raskin begins work nearing Apple's li.tture inclusuial
named Robinson. wl~ch is used to "The hope is that human brains Steve Wozt~ak to Steve jobs. a small selkontained computer design; Esslinger is named
decode messages from the Gern1:u1 and computing machines will cocle-named Macintosh. corporate design manager.
Enigrm code machine. be coupled together ... :mel that 1971. Freel Moore and Gordon
the resulting pannership "·ill French form the Home Brei'· December, 1979. Ste1·e Jobs tours August, 1983. ti·ogclesign sets up
1944. Homtrd Aiken completes think as no human has ever Computer Club in Palo Alto. CA the Xerox Palo Alto Resetrdl its sntclio in CampbelL CA.
d1e tirst American progr.munable thought. .... Center. sees a demonstration of d1e
TIM E LI NE
November 10, 1983. In an attempt September-October, 1985. Stel'e January 3, 1990. Ruben Bmm1er October 15, 1992. Bob Bmnner August, 1996. ·n1e Spa11acus
diren :mention for the iiiacinrosh . Jobs resigns from Apple: srans a lx>comes director of Apple IDg. IJegiilS rl1e Pomom Design design is complete. IYill be
.\ Uo·osofi .. ,)feJimounccs· iL' first ne<~· fum called \'e~1 Computer. hwestig:nion. ,.,-[uch e1·entualh· um'Ciled in J:muatY. 19'T as the
n:rsion of\'i'indmYs. an oper:ning FebNary, 1990. Btutmer completes le:rds to the T"·entieth Anni1·ei"S:IIY T<~·entierll Anniwrs:uY ,\Jacultosh:
s1·srem for the JB:-1-PC rltn fe:nures January, 1986. TI1e \ lacimosh Plus the foam moclel for a pon:tble ,\ lacinrosh. cocle-named Sp:uuncs. :>liousofi inrrcx.luces \\·indcm·s 95.
a· cmde facsimile of rl1e ill:ic's is um·eiled: used IYith Pageillaker. computer rlut "ill evemuallv
gmphicaluser imerface: shipped Post-Script :mel the l"Iser\\'Iiter. the become d1e Poll'erllook January, 1993. Apple introcluces October, 1996. Apple um'Cils the
1·ersions of \'i'indmYs 1.0 appear in iliac Plus leads the rei'Olution in rl1e Po11·erl3ook Duo Duo Dock e-1-late.
1985 desktop publishing March, 1990. Jem-Louis Gassee and :\lacintosh Color Cb · ·ic.
resigns from Apple: srans Be. Inc. November, 1996. Apple suspencb
December 15, 1983. Apple's December, 1986. Hamnut May, 1993. ,\Josaic. an earlv \Xorld <~·ork on it.s ne~1-gener:1tion
·198-r .. Super Bo1YI commercial hslinger :1grees to end frog June 1990.Jagmrdesignmnceprs \'iide \l'eb bro<~-ser. is introclucecl: ,\!Jcinrosh opet:tting s1·srcm
I111lS for rhe first rime on sration design's rebtionship <~·itll Apple. arc um·eiled to Apple m:magemem tmftk on the \'ieb groll's m a (Copbnd): begins negotiating \l'iUl
K.~f\ ·r in Twin Falls. lcbho. ar 1 3-tl.6-t3 annual percentage rate. Jean-Louis Gassee to :1cquire his
:un (thus qualifying the spot for a January, 1987. TI1e :\lacintosh II. October 15, 1990. Apple inuu Be OJJerating S)'Stem.
198-1 Cleo a1Yards rl1e ach'enising iliac SE and rebtecljX'Iipherals duces it ·!mY cost computer bmi- May-August, 1993. Pomona
equil'a!ent of rl1e Oscar.) :u·e um·eilecl:.Jim Ste<~·an becomes 11·.· the .\lacintosh LC. \be llsi and concepts are tested among focus December, 1996. In a SUI]Jiise
director of the .~pple Indusnial .\be Classic: sales sk1Tcx.·ket. groups: the cwwd panel ·B & 0 move. Apple acquires 2\exr
January 24, 1984. Stel·e.Jobs Design Group (IDg) ,\lac'' concept is judged best: Computer. Inc. for S t33 million
um·eils rhe Macintosh ar Apple's November, 1990. :>Iichael SpuKiler Jonathan Jl·e t:Ikes m·er the projeo and <~·ith it the source ccx.le to the
annu:il shareholder's meeting March, 1987. ll1e one-millionth becomes Apple president: !Job and redesigns the concept. 1\exrSrep and OpenStep operating
/.l;tcultosh rolls off the assembl1· B11mner completes rl1e tina!J at,'liar s1·stems. Stew jobs agrees to help
May, 1984. Apple um·eib irs first line: 111' nOIY. computers dominate concepts. IY!lich sen e as rl1e lxt>is September, 1993. Apple offers rl1e ciel'elop the nCIY OS using 'lc~1
pomble com purer. the Apple lie. all phases of coqxxate and tor rl1e Espresso design language. first A\' !lbcimoshes femuing mul tcchnolog~·.
TI1e tirst produn to reflect rl1e ne1Y gm·ernment opei:Itions: PCs and r.imeclia and on-board CD-R0\1: the
SnmY\'illite design language. it is PC client se1wr nem·orks begin October-December, 1990. TI1e sec· '\e11 1on :>lessagePad 100 is January 7, 1997. Applecelebr:nes
also the tlrst Apple prcx.luct to <~·in to repbce old-sll·ie nL1inli:unes ond Fig.uu comJJetition rakes place: um·ei!edto ll'eak re,·ieiYS: the first irs twentierll :mnil·ers:uY: Chairntul
a<~·ards for irs design. The lie "·ill and minicomputer SI'Stems. Giugiaro·s concept :1g:tin prevails. Jaguar-detil'ed products. Norsi :mel Gil Amelio Uiweils the T< ~·entieth
sell more than -100.000 units in irs Telec:t,ter. are <~·ell recei1·ecl: Anrtil·et>Jty ,lbcintosh at rhe
first year. illacintosh packaging August, 1987. Apple Uill'eils 1991. 'n1e llrsr conunerciallnterner .~Uch:tel Spindler replaces john c\lac\'iorld expo: Ste,·e \'i.ozniak is
and logo rreaunems also IY in HI'JJeiCarcl and "lultiFuxler. :1n 1xm·ider. TI1e \'i'orld. goes on-line. Sculle1· as Apple's president gi,·en unit muniX'r 0000 I: Jobs is
:II\ :rrds for their design. enhanced 1·ersion of rl1e \ l:tc OS recei1·es tulir number 00000.
that nms tii'O or more applications FebNary, 1991. Figaro pr<Jgi:un October, 1994. Jonadl:m !1·e·s
Summer-Fall, 1984. tiugdesign cre sunultanemtslv. 11111s inro trouble: ,\lichael Tch:1o Pomona protot1pe is appro1ul for FebNary 1, 1997. Stel·eJobs
ates 13ig,\ lac and Bab1· •\ lac (later persu:1des john Sculle1· to :I bandon cb ·eiopmenr under rl1e cocle-n:une returns t.o Apple on a li.III-time
cancelled). the Apple IIGS and a August-September, 1987. John Fig.tro and chdop :t pocket-sized Spamcus. basis: the resurgence begins.
1:mge of ponable iliac proclum Scullev cnl'isiotts rl1e Kno<~·ieclge \ie11 ton proclua. code-namecl
i\a1·igator: 11·ork soon begins on junior. February, 1994. '!he lnrernet 1997·98. Apple umds irs ·nurd
October, 1984. .JenY illanock a handheld ·personal digital assis celebr:nes iLs 25rll anni1 ·ei'S:IIY: Decade· procltK1iule: "·l~ch
resigns from Apple. tant" cocle-nJmecl Fig:un IY!lich March, 1991. Apple um·eils S1·srem Apple tuweils the Po<~·erBook 'iOO includes consumer and busuless·
<~utdcl e1·o!ve imo rhe \'e"1 on. -.o. QuickTime. the StYle\'iiiter seiies (Blackbird) and \'e"1 on oiienrecl CPls. a ne<~· cross-pbr ·
January, 1985. Apple inu·ocluccs and Personal LLser\'i'Iiter. "Iess:1gePad 110 (Lind1·). ll'hich form computer. Po\\·crBooks.
the il i:lcinrosh Otrke. "·hich con January, 1988. Richard Jordan together represent d1e pinnacle of enhanced \ie111on :mel e1\late prcx.l
sists of the J\IJcintosh XL. the takes m·er m:magcmem of the April19, 1991. Apple outsells fB~l Espresso design. ucts. and a simple Internet comput
Ltscr\'i'!irer and Apple Talk net· Apple lndusuial Design Group. in PCs sllipments rise 85°o. er th:H 11·ill sell k>r less th:1n S'iOO.
IYOrking SYStem. April, 1994. Apple completes rl1e 'l11e nc"· i\e~t.\bc OIX'I<lting sys
January..June, 1988. Apple May, 1991. \ licrosofi unwils \'i'ul transition to Po<~-erPC rlunughour tem is um·eiled in !anu:uY 1998.
April, 1985. Sre1·e Jobs presents Uill'eils the laser\'i'riter II. do<~·s 3.0: the percei\'ecl clifiercnce iLs desktop computer line. six momhs ahe<td ~f sch~lulc
concepts for J portable 1-lacintosh Image\'i'riter LQ. Opei:u:ing S1srem IX'l\l'ecn the 'I lac and PC narro<~·s.
to Apple's bo:Ird. the idea is 6.0 and AppleSc:umer. January, 1995. TI1e Inremct grOIYS 1999. Ilali· of all l.S. householcls
turned dom1Jobs initiates a shih July 3, 1991. Apple-nl/.1-/.lororola cxponenrbllv <~·idl ~.8 million om1 and use a Jlersoml computer.
in strateg~· Gtusing frogdesign to December, 1988. In the l.S .. there join forces to chelop Pm1·erPC: hosts and39.·tl0 nel\l·orks.
de1 ·elop the second Sn011'\'i'hite ,u·e 11.500 m:1inti-:une computers. Apple announces plans lor :t ne<~· Early 21st century. Compute!'
design bngmge. 120.000 minicomputers and~. S200 million R&D camptLS. Spring, 1995. ~eLSGlJX' goes pub dominate all :tSjlt'GS of socier,·:
million res. lic. IJecomes the third largest \'AS u1reUigem course"·Jre allo<~·s
April 29, 1985. TI1e 'I lacintosh \1 .. August-September, 1991. D:u~el DAQ !PO in histotY: Sun .\licrosYS· distance leanling: 1..:-12 and higher
former!)· kno<~·n as rhe Lisa. is qui January-March, 1989. Apple De luliis and L1nY Barbera com tems um·eils it.s _1,1\ a progmmming eel st.udents begin an ending classes
etlv discominued despite healY umocluces rl1e /. bcimosh SE 30 plete the/. lacintosh Color Classic. langu:1ge. 1·i a computer.
demand for rl1e product. and :-I:tcintosh Ucx: multimcdi:J rl1e Espresso design language is
becomes uKltt:>1IY buzzl'cord: e:;tablished. September, 1995. TI1e long·a\\·Jil 2006. \'iith the ach"ent of digital
May 23, 1985. Jobs and Sculle1· \licrosofi \'i'indo;\'S sales match ecl \12 PmverBook. successor to releYision. home PC o<~·nersllip
engage in a boarckoom silOIY· \lac sales lor rhe tlrsr time: Apple October, 1991. Apple Lnll'eils the Blackbird. is um·eiled to mixed re:rches -5 percent: PCs become
do<~·n:.Jobs le<ll·es rl1e ,\Jacintosh pursues a biYSuit IYith ,\Jicrosofr Po<~·erBook: "des quickl1' ouLsuip re1 ie11·s: repons of bane1ies catch imelligem assistams. combing tl1e
Division: jem-Louis Gassce OYer rl1e ·took and feel" of the supplv; its design re1·olutionizcs d1e ing fire mars the release: el·emml- ~lterner for information 2·t homs
lxcome; head of~ lacintosh R& D. J\lac user imerface. shape and feitlll'e set of all bptop 11· thousands of units are recalled. a day. distance learning in the J-.:.
computeis. 12 re1~11 becomes conunonpbce.
June, 1985.lB\l-PCsalesswr May.July, 1989. Ridwdjordan January 3, 1996. Roben Billllner
after rl1e rele:rse of rl1e spretclsheet conu:tcts Giorgeuo Giugiaro to 1992. TI1e number of lilternet hailS lea1·es .-\pple: rl1e follmving monrh. 2006. Apple celebi:nes its 30rl1
jXOgi:tm Lams 1-2-3: frogdesign a·eJre Apple's ne<~· indtcsuial ex=ls 1 million: Tim llcrrJei:;-!.ee jonarl1an Jl·e replaces him as direc Jnni\·crs:u;.·.
present.s a concept for :1 cross design language. cb'dops the \'iodcl \'i'icle \'i'eb at tor of Apple !Dg.
pbrlorm computer. coclc-named CER.\J 2020. Home computer o\\·nersl~p
.Jon:nhan: the concept is rejected: September, 1989. Apple um·eils February 12, 1996. Dr. Gilben reaches 97%. equal ro rim of the
Bill Gates asks john Scullev to the illacimosh Ponable: the first May, 1992. Tohn Sculle1· un\'eils Amelio is named Apple Cilainmn. home telephone and telel'ision.
g1:mt ,\ ticrosofi a license tor the Figaro design competition bmrs the first \ie;11on 'less:IgePad :n tl1e President and CEO. Fending oiler
\lac OS but is turned doll'n. Giugiaro·s sbte concept. Consumer Elecu-oilics Shm1·. merger mmors. Amelio begins the 2025. Computers approach
slo<~· process of rebuilding Apple. human-he! intelligence.
June.July, 1985. De1·elopmem of 1990. A multi-hunclrecl-billion October-December, 1992. jonadtm
t11e Macintosh li under.J.-L Gassce dollar computer indusuY emerges. ll·e joins IDg. designs rl1e second July, 1995. Imernet rmffic noll' 150 millions years later.
is in full s\\·ing. together <l'ith a ·net"·ork of \ie<~1on "le~sJgepacl (Unci\'). encomp:1sses 6.6 nlillion hosts and Du1os:~urs rmm the Eanh.
nem·orks· called the Internet. 6I.'i38 sqxu:ne nemwks.
T
HE FOUNDING OF APPLE COi\!PLTER BY STEVE jOBS Al\D STEPI-IEI\ class teacher by showing off one of his side projects: a small I
\X!ozniak and its subsequent growth is a now-legenda1y sto1y tl1at he built at home using borrowed parts. Wim his long hair.
of curiosity, tenacity and obsession that has forged a unique dyed shins and vegetarian diet, Jobs seemed to have little in c
place in American business hist01y, popular culture and the hist01y mon wid1 Wozniak, who wore clothes fromJ. C. Penny and live<
of design. Though the st01y is complex, with many twists and turns, burgers and fries. Yet they made an interesting team: Wozniak
it is all the more potent because of the innocence of its beginnings. hard-core computer nerd driven by a love of technology; and.
Born in a valley of fruit orchards at the southern end of the San the young charismatic, driven by a belief in himself and an intt
Francisco peninsula, Apple was the product of a unique culture, the in teclmology more for what it could do than for how it wor
convergence of several different technologies and the vision of two When they first met, neither was fully-formed. Yet each made UJ
suburban middle-class kids who created a machine that would make what the other lacked. And both had at least two things in comr
d1em born multimillionaires, build d1e careers of d1ousands who intense curiosity and a penchant for risk.
worked at d1e company they founded and have a profound effect on Like today's computer hackers,Jobs and Wozniak had little res
me way millions of people live and work-serving as a productivity for "secrets" and enjoyed using meir technical prowess to twea1
tool, a vehicle for creative expression and a window onto cyberspace. nose of authority. Thus they became "phone phreaks" -fascinate
As the Adam and Eve of personal computing, Jobs and Wozniak dle tiny hand-held devices known as "blue boxes" mat could emi
grew up in a landscape that has long since disappeared, a quiet and precise tones needed to tap into AT&T's long-distance lines. Intri§
lonely place full of engineers, technicians and designers who spent by an article in Esquire magazine about blue boxes supplied by \X
their days in anonymous-looking buildings designing missiles, satel mod1er, they looked up an obscure elecu·onics journal, which 1
lites and high-tech equipment for defense and indust1y. Nights and insU1JCtions for building one using nearly $1,000 wo1th of con
weekends were spent in their garages reading technical journals and nents, d1en found an even more obscure AT&T technical manu
building odd contraptions using the circuitboarcls and tiny black tl1e Stanford University libra1y, designed meir own box using just
chips that gave the place its name: Silicon Valley. wotth of pans, then made calls all around the world. As a pr
Sho1t and stocky wid1 wire-limmecl eyeglasses and a wide tood1y Wozniak telephoned the Vatican posing as Heruy Kissinger and a~
grin, Steve Wozniak belonged to this gizmo culture. The son of an to speak to the Pope. When told that the Pope was asleep (it wa~
engineer at Lockheed, Wozniak built his first ham radio at the age of middle of the night in Rome), Wozniak left a number for His Holi
12, won a blue ribbon at a science fair for constructing a primitive to call back (He didn't.)
computer at d1e age of 13, spent hours in the libra1y reading electron For \V'ozniak, d1e blue box was just for fun. But Jobs, sensin)
ics magazines and touring computer rooms looking for pans he need oppommity suggested tlley build me boxes in volume, take mel
eel to build his home creations. clormitolies at UC Berkeley (where Wozniak was a student), sell tl
TI1ough technically precocious, Wozniak rarely mought about what he door-to-door for $100 apiece and split me proceeds. 111eir busi.
was doing beyond d1e immediate challenge of building me next "cool" card had tl1e slogan "He's got d1e whole world in his hand." TI1c
machine. For him, it was enough to have an idea, fmc! d1e 1ight pans, put wildly profitable, tl1e illegal business also had its downside. Dming
d1em toged1er, men figure out how to make me machine work But to get sales call, held in tlw parking lot of a local pizza joint, Jobs negoti
anywhere, Wozniak had learn how to show off his creations in a way that wim a potential buyer while staring down the barrel of a gun, at w
would impress his fliend5. "In d1e early clays, you weren't judged by how point Jobs abandoned me venture Woz continued, but doing so pi~
cool your stuff was, but how well you could demo it," he says. Years later, havoc wid1 his schoolwork, forcing him to drop out of college in ;
this ability to show your work and persuade od1ers to pay attention would and take a job at Hewlett-Packard. But me experience was a form
evolve into an ed1os known as "demo or die,'' which d1ives d1e personal one. According to Jobs, "tl1e blue boxes taught us d1at we could t
computer industry to this day. Even though Wozniak could design com a small thing and use it to conu·ol a giant thing .... Wim this box
puters, he was often too tongue-tied to demo them effectively. For could conu-ol billions of dollars wo1th of infrasU'LICture. That wa
d1is reason, he worked mostly on his own, unaware that he was blaz incredible lesson. I don't tllink d1ere would ever have been an A]
ing a trail that would one day transform society and endow him wid1 computer if tl1ere hadn't first been a blue box."
a fonune so large he would need a computer to count it. That aware Unable to make the boxes on his own, Jobs also dropped Ol
ness problem began to chai1ge, however, when Wozniak met a skin school, barely completing his freshman year in 1973. He then t
ny 15-year-old named Steven Paul Jobs. elled to India, lived in an Oregon commune for several monms
lntroclucecl in 1971 by a high school friend, d1ey were tl1e original wandered back to Silicon Valley, where he took a job at a fledg
odd couple. Five years younger tllan Wozniak, the adopted son of an video game maker called Atari. This brought the two Steves t
engineer, jobs learned to write programs using the computer lan togetl1er, placing them at the cutting edge of technology just as
guage BASIC by tl1e age of ten, and impressed his ninth-grade shop personal computer revolution was about to begin.
Homebrew Club. In 1974. Jobs and Wozniak began attending instructions into the computer using basic English words and sym
teetings at the Homebre''' Computer Club. An informal fraternity of bols, thus creating a piece of software called an operating system
)mputer expens. engineers from local high-tech firms and interest the internal u·affic cop that tells the computer how the keyboard and
j onlookers, Homebre\v met on \\fednesday evenings at the Stan monitor are <;:onnected to the central processing unit (CPU), how files
•rd Linear Accelerator Center in Palo Alto to give demonstrations. are stored, and how the computer interfaces with eA'.ternal devices
JY and sell computer parts and show off the small machines that such as printers and disk drives. With an operating system, the pro
tembers made in their home workshops using a ne'\Y breed of grammer can then n·rite a special piece of software (like the one Jobs
ucroprocessor de,·eloped by the Intel Corporation. wrote at the age often) called an application or program, which tells
Looking back it's hard to grasp what a revolutiomuy idea the per a chip such as the Intel 4004 how to perform a specific task. \XIhen
mal computer was in 1975. Since the late 1940s. when machines connected to a different kind of sem.iconductor called a memory
JCh as the Electronic Numeric Integrator and Computer (called chip, the 4004 could function as a tiny computer. But, as its name
\.lAC) filled entire rooms and weighed in at nearly 30 tons. most implied. it could only handle 4,000 (or 4k) bits of memmy, which
:-ople thought of computers as huge menacing beasts. Rarely seen meant its power was limited. But that soon changed .
.-ordinary monals, those early computers were used by the mili Following Moore's law, Intel unveiled its next tnicroprocessor in
tY. large banks and insurance companies. tended by earnest men 1972. Knom1 as the 8008, it could handle 24k of memoty and setved
\Yhite coats. consumed megawatts of electricity and carried with as the key component for a small k.it computer known as the Mark
em connotations of evil and control of the many by the few. In S, which became a favorite among the soldering iron set in 1973-74.
1suing decades, a series of technical developments, beginning with Housed in a sheet metal box with a row of blinking lights on the
e advent of transistor, brought about a new breed of computers front, the M::u'k-8 was designed for the hard-core hobbyist, someone
tch as the IBM 1130. the Varian 620 and Data General's i'\oYa-tbat more interested in the idea of owning a computer than in what the
ere far more pmYerful than ENIAC yet small enough to fit in a case mach.ine could actually do. Aesthetically, the Mark-8 was closer to the
e size of a filing cabinet. test equipment found in the garages of Silicon Valley than a comput
The ever-shrinking size and growing pmver of computers evolved er anyone would use in a home or office. But the fact that it had a
accordance n·ith a concept ki1on-r1 as Moore·s Law-coined by case at all put it miles ahead of the homemade creations being shown
:xdon Moore. a co-founder of Intel-which holds that evety two at d1e Homebre\v Club, which were usually housed in cigar boxes
·ars. the processors that form the heart of a computer will double d1at members painted themselves.
speed as their price and size fall by half. Even though the metal By the spring of 1975, Intel unveiled its ti1.ircl chip, the 8080, which
tel silicon used to make processors are inexpensive, Moore pre could handle 65k of memoty and became tile heart of a new kit
creel that \Yays would always be found to pack more circuits onto computer, the Altair 8080, which Popular Elect~·onics magazine
~i,·en surface area, allowing components to become faster, small hailed as ti1e "World's First Minicomputer Kit to Rival Commercial
and cheaper than anyone could predict. Models." Made by a tiny firm called MITS in Albuquerque, New
In 1969. Moore·s Law began to take hold n·hen Intel unveiled its Mexico. the kit sold for S375 and came in a stern metal case with
st sem.iconductor mounted on an inch-long piece of silicon. Called the obligatoty lights and switches. \XIith no ports on the back for
e Intel 4004, it was one of a set of chips used to control devices connecting a monitor, keyboard or printer, there was little one could
ch as stoplights and small desktop calculators made by compan.ies do with an Altair except flip the switches and watch the lights blink.
ch as Hewlett-Packard and litronic. Heralding a nen· era of inte But when news of it reached Homebrew, it caused a sensation.
ated electronics. the 400'+ looked like nothing at all until you put At first, Stephen Wozniak "thought it would be neat" to build an
under a microscope. Suddenly a maze of circuits resembling a Altair. But as soon as he saw the circuitboard layout, he decided d1at
eet map of Manhattan came into vien·. with each circuit perform the Intel8080 was not ti1e wonder chip that Popular Electronics had
~ a specific function. promised. Though speedy for its time, it needed sLx additional chips
and a complex layout in order to function. thus defeating d1e basic
HElliER J'(S A :-LID'fRA,\ rE WEIGl 11'/G HU\DHEDS OF POUNDS, OH A L;\PTOP. challenge of computer design-to squeeze ti1e maximum perf'i:::>r
computers do basically the same thing. They process numerical mance from the m.inimum number of chips. Instead, Wozniak
ta: adding and subtracting, multiplying and dividing, they provide designed l1.is own computer with all the components on a single
esult and wait for the next instruction. For that to happen, the data board using a new nucroprocessor made by Motorola called ti1e 6800.
JSt be translated from binmy code' (the 1s and Os that all comput Beginning in October 1975, Wozniak spent six months designing
' understand) into computf'rlanguage. the basic software that tells his computer and more than 40 hours with jobs in March 1976
: machine what to do \Yith the data and in what sequence. Using building and testing that first prototype. By toclay's standards, it was
language such as Cobol, BASIC or C, programmers can type laughingly simple: there was no keyboard, no sound. no video. only
