Table Of Content‘Always Crackne in Heaven’
By
Grant Finlay B.A. Theol. M.
Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy University of Tasmania
University of Tasmania June 2015
This thesis contains no material which has been accepted for a degree or diploma
by the University or any other institution, except by way of background
information and duly acknowledged in the thesis, and to the best of my knowledge
and belief no material previously published or written by any other person except
where due acknowledgement is made in the text of the thesis.
This thesis may be made available for loan and limited copying in accordance
with the Copyright Act 1968.
The research associated with this thesis abides by the international and Australian
codes on human and animal experimentation, the guidelines by the Australian
Government's Office of the Gene Technology Regulator and the rulings of the
Safety, Ethics and Institutional Biosafety Committees of the University.
ii
Abstract
The interaction of Aboriginal people with expressions of Christian faith during the
colonial history of Australia has been examined in various contexts but not to any
great extent in Australia’s southernmost setting of Tasmania. This thesis traces the
interactions of Tasmanian Aboriginal people with Christianity from the
beginnings of the colony of Van Diemen’s Land to the early years of the twentieth
century.
While surviving documentary sources are limited they show a vibrant pre-
contact Aboriginal religious life. Its elements were multi-layered, complex and
open to interacting with the different religious lives of other clans and
subsequently with the colonists. Pre-existing religious beliefs and practices were
the paradigm through which Aboriginal people interpreted the Christian faith.
In the first generations of colonial contact there was not a mission among
Aboriginal people by any church missionary society. Most religious oriented
conversations occurred in the less formal settings of conversations between
individuals or within families. Some conversations were with the Government
appointed conciliator, catechist or clergy who were part of Government programs
such as the Hobart Orphan School, the Settlement at Wybalenna, and Oyster Cove
Station. These formal settings provide archival sources that indicate a variety of
interactions and Aboriginal responses to Christian faith.
The polyvalent rather than uniform responses demonstrate the ‘agency’ of
Aboriginal people. Most chose to reject the Christian faith. Some, however,
incorporated various elements including baptism, participation in church services,
family Bible reading, Bible translation, writing addresses and the preaching of
Christian sermons.
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A substantial focus of this thesis examines the oral and literary responses
to exposure to the Christian faith at a pivotal location during a crucial period of
colonial history, namely the Wybalenna Settlement on Flinders Island from 1832
– 1847. Previously unpublished sources analysed include Bible translations,
catechetical examinations, literacy tests, Christian addresses and newspaper
articles. The interplay of oral and written responses is examined as well as ways
Aboriginal people incorporated Christian faith as they adapted and mediated
personal and clan roles and relationships in the dynamic context of Wybalenna.
The formal settings of the Wybalenna Settlement and Orphan School
contrast the largely independent practices of particular families on the Furneaux
Islands throughout most of the nineteenth century and the Nicholls Rivulet
Methodist Church in the early twentieth century. These more informal settings
demonstrate ways in which Aboriginal people’s adoption of Christian faith was
constrained by denominational structures and a general lack of interest in them by
most church members. Nevertheless, Aboriginal Christian people formed long and
lasting relationships with a few colonial Christians who supported their
development of uniquely Tasmanian Aboriginal Christian lives.
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Table of contents
Acknowledgements— page vi
Acronyms— page viii
Preface— page ix
Maps— page xiii
Introduction— page 1
Chapter One: ‘Fertile not fallow spiritual lives’ page 25
Chapter Two: ‘Motti (one) Nyrae (good) Parlerdi (God)’ page 67
Chapter Three: ‘Black man’s church’ page 108
Chapter Four: ‘Cracks in the catechism’ page 150
Chapter Five: ‘Always crackne in heaven’ page 187
Chapter Six: ‘Neglecting the simplest duties’ page 230
Chapter Seven: ‘They think we got no souls now’ page 270
Conclusion: page 313
Bibliography: page 327
Appendix A: Baptisms of Aboriginal people page 344
Appendix B: Aboriginal children at the Hobart Orphan School page 350
Appendix C: Bible translation at Wybalenna page 353
Appendix D: Christian addresses at Wybalenna page 357
Appendix E: Flinders Island Chronicle page 370
v
Acknowledgements
I like the acknowledgement blurbs that people put at the beginning of their theses
and books. They remind us all of the many influences, supporters and contributors
to what is on, and not on, the pages we’re about to read. While not being a team
effort, for the author must take final responsibility for what appears on the pages,
nevertheless just as it takes a village to raise a child, so it usually takes the efforts
of more than one person to produce a thesis.
I begin by acknowledging the many generations of Aboriginal people of
this group of islands we now call Tasmania. I appreciate them as custodians of
many stories and rituals of a metaphysical nature. I am curious about those stories
and rituals and how they have survived and been interpreted during the
experiences of colonisation.
The community of people of the Uniting Aboriginal and Islander Christian
Congress Tasmania continue to be the home of my sense of belonging here. While
they have benefitted from a number of the stories I have found in this research,
they have also given me time to undertake this thesis. My UAICC colleagues
across Australia who live contemporary experiences of Aboriginal Christian faith
have assisted the development of ideas and interpretations of archival material.
My supervisor, Mitchell Rolls, has given me constructive feedback over
quite a few years. He appreciated the worthiness of the project several years ahead
of me. I have appreciated his insights and encouragement, and how our sometimes
differing perspectives helped clarify my own. Other postgraduate students at
Riawunna and the interdisciplinary network, Colonialism and its Aftermaths
(CAIA), have been encouraging and at times inspiring, usually without them
knowing it.
vi
Much of this thesis relies on archival material and I thank the staff at the
Mitchell Library in Sydney for the week that gave me many new things to write
about. The staff at the Tasmanian Archives and Heritage Office and the Rare
Books Collection at the Morris Miller Library, University of Tasmania, have also
been very helpful.
Two people who gave personal professional assistance were Merrill
Clayton who translated portions of a book for me, and Jennie Herrera who proof
read the final draft. Simon Barnard produced the maps.
My deepest gratitude, by a long way, belongs with Debbie Finlay who
endured many a one-sided ‘conversation’ over seven years as I got excited about
an archival find or just filled the air with thoughts that could have, and probably
should have, simply remained unsaid. It would be difficult to find a single
appropriate way to say thank you, but I am sure more than a few ideas will come
to light in the coming years. And to Laura – ‘none for you Gretchen Weiners’,
Kate – ‘sorry for missing the mutual graduation’, ‘ and Liam – ‘lone survivor’.
vii
Acronyms
BCP – Book of Common Prayer
CMS – Church Missionary Society
KJV – King James Version of the Bible, also known as the Authorised Version
UAICC – Uniting Aboriginal and Islander Christian Congress
UCA – Uniting Church in Australia
viii
Preface
Naming protocols
During the first generations of contact, many Aborigines had multiple Aboriginal
names. In the colonial archives there are often more than one way of spelling
them. I adopt the protocol of using the spelling and capitalisations used when
quoting directly from sources. A number of Aborigines named in this thesis were
also known by both Aboriginal and English names. These multiple and
simultaneous identities are an important consideration in how these people
interpreted and incorporated Christian faith. The protocol used will be to list both
Aboriginal and English names when first mentioned. Subsequent references will
have the Aboriginal name where it is known and the English name where the
Aboriginal name is not known.
In this thesis a number of Aborigines and clans are mentioned. The
following ‘clan tree’ outlines the clans, people and intra-clan relationships
specified. Within each clan the names are listed in the order in which they appear
in the thesis. There were of course other people and clans beyond those listed
here. The clan names used are as they appear in George Robinson’s papers and
other reports. There is some conjecture about several clan identifications
particularly those of a spouse as both spouses in a marriage were unlikely to be
from the same clan. There is also some conflation of clans in the archives such as
‘Ben Lomond’ and ‘North-east’, as well as ‘Big River’ which included people
from various clans related to the central areas of Van Diemen’s Land. Individual
names are used in the form most often used in the source documents. The spelling
of some of these names is different among the Aboriginal community today.
ix
‘Ben Lomond’ clan
• Rolepa / George married to Luggenemenener / Tuery
o Walter Arthur, eldest son
o Rolepana, another son, living with John Batman at the ‘Kingston’
property near Ben Lomond
• Trowlebunner / Achilles, brother of Luggenemenener, married to
Toogernuppertootenner / Maria II
• Meterluererparrityer / Christopher
• Tarenootairrer / Sarah married to Nicermenic / Eugene, from North-west
clan
o Mary Ann Arthur, daughter of Tarenootairrer, married to Walter
Arthur, son of Rolepa and Luggenemenener. Mary Ann married
Adam Booker after the death of Walter Arthur
o Fanny Cochrane Smith, daughter of Tarenootairrer, married
William Smith
o Adam, son of Tarenootairrer
North-east
• Mannalargenna
o Wapperty, daughter of Mannalargenna
o Kartityer / Hector, son of Mannalargenna
Oyster Bay
• Tongerlongerter / William
x
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