World Literature - Glencoe

78 Pages·2011·14.87 MB·English

Learning Objectives
Ancient
For pages 178–189
In studying this text, you
will focus on the following
objectives:
G R E E C E
Literary Study: Analyzing
literary periods.
Reading: Evaluating historical
influences.
Connecting to the literature.
1500 b.c.–1 b.c.
Historical, Social, and Cultural Forces
The Greek World the proximity to the sea encouraged trade and
provided access to other cultures. The Greeks
Greece is a land of islands, mountains, and penin-
eventually developed a type of community they
sulas. Rocky hilltops separate parts of the territory
called a polis, or city-state. (Polis is the root of
from each other and make the soil difficult to
such English words as politics and political.) The
farm. White limestone cliffs drop off into the blue
polis was a city, a town, or even a village that
and ever-present sea. Most parts of Greece are
controlled the surrounding countryside. The most
within 50 miles of saltwater, and this rugged,
powerful of the ancient Greek city-states were
maritime landscape has affected Greece’s history
Athens and Sparta. Although they were fiercely
from its beginning. The rough terrain meant
independent, these city-states shared a common
settlements were isolated and self-sufficient, and
language, religion, and social organization.
Athens
Athens grew over the centuries from a small city-
state to become the center of one of the most
successful and cultured societies in the history of
the world. By the fifth century b.c., history’s first
democratic government had taken hold there.
Free Athenian men spent much of their time in
public outdoor spaces, discussing philosophy and
politics. Wealth from nearby silver mines, from
other cities paying tribute, and from trade allowed
Athenians ample time to pursue learning. While
citizens enjoyed freedom and opportunity, how-
ever, most people in Athens were not citizens.
Scholars estimate at least forty percent of the
Athenian population was enslaved. Although
enslaved people could often buy their freedom,
they could never gain full rights as citizens. Free
Hoplites and cavaliers. Princeton Painter. Attic black figure
women could not participate openly in politics
amphora. Louvre, Paris.
and were expected to spend their time at home.
182 UNIT 2 ANCIENT GREECE
Réunion des Musées Nationaux/Art Resource, NY
Sparta
While Athens was known for its democratic
government and flourishing culture, Sparta was
known for its military strength. The Spartan
government believed the lives of its citizens
should center on the military. For this reason,
young boys were taken away from their parents
and housed in dormitories while they underwent
rigorous physical training. Girls were trained in
all-female groups. From the age of twenty until
the age of 60, men belonged to the army.
Although they were allowed to marry, only after
30 could they live with their wives.
“Our love of what is beautiful
does not lead to extravagance; our
love of the things of the mind does
not make us soft.”
—Thucydides, The Peloponnesian War
The Challenge of Persia
As the Greek city-states developed, they came
into conflict with the vast and powerful Persian
Empire to the east. In 490 b.c., an invading Bust of Pericles, 2nd century BC. Roman. Marble.
British Museum, London.
Persian force landed on the Plain of Marathon,
only 26 miles from Athens. Badly outnumbered,
the Athenians decisively defeated the Persian
The Age of Pericles
army. According to legend, a messenger from
Marathon raced news of the Persian defeat to
Under Pericles (per(cid:1)ə klē ź), the leader who
Athens and uttered only the word Nike
dominated Athenian politics from 461 to 429
(“victory”) before dropping dead of exhaustion.
b.c., Athens became the center of Greek culture.
Ten years later, 300 Spartan soldiers delayed a The Persians had destroyed much of the city
second and even larger Persian invasion, holding during the Persian Wars, but Pericles set in
back 180,000 Persian troops at the pass of motion a vast rebuilding program. New temples
Thermopylae while fighting to the last man. The and statues soon symbolized the greatness of
onslaught of the enemy forces threatened the Athens. Art, architecture, and philosophy
Athenians; they abandoned their city, which the flourished. The greatest symbol of Periclean
Persians burned. In a sea battle off the island of Athens is the Parthenon (pä r(cid:1)thə nä ń), the
Salamis, however, the Greek fleet, though out- beautiful temple of the city’s patroness Athena,
numbered, outmaneuvered the Persian fleet and goddess of wisdom. This temple displays grace and
defeated it. The defeat of Persia allowed Athens harmony, the ideals of classical art.
to assume the leadership of Greece and reach the
height of political power and cultural brilliance.
INTRODUCTION 183
British Museum, London/Bridgeman Art Library
Sculpture
Greek sculptors usually presented human forms.
They used symmetry and proportion to create a
new kind of beauty. Initially, Greek sculptures
showed figures with their weight balanced equally
on both legs. However, Greek sculptors soon
began experimenting with a more natural,
asymmetrical style in which the weight of the
figure rests primarily on one leg. Sculptors studied
how muscles and bones work together, and their
realistic sculptures reflected this new knowledge.
The Olympics
Athletics, was highly valued in ancient Greece.
The best athletes trained for years to participate
in the Olympic games, the premier competition of
the time. Held every four years in the Greek city
of Olympia, the games were elaborate festivals
that focused on religion, poetry, and music as well
as on sports. The first Olympics featured only one
event, a foot race across the distance of the
stadium. In later years more races and other
events were added. Only men could compete in
the Olympics, and usually only wealthy men had
time to train, practice, and travel to Olympia.
While there were no official cash prizes, cities
often rewarded their champions with large sums.
Sophocles, c. 340-30 BC. Museo Gregoriano Profano,
Vatican Museums, Vatican State.
“Beauty of style and harmony
and grace and good rhythm depend
on simplicity.”
—Plato, from The Republic
Running hoplite, 520-510 BC. Skythos Painter. Interior of a
red-figured cup from Tanagra. Louvre, Paris.
184 UNIT 2 ANCIENT GREECE
(t)Scala/Art Resource, NY; (b)Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY
THE ORDERS OF GREEK ARCHITECTURE
Architecture
Although Greek people lived in humble houses,
they constructed magnificent public buildings.
Ionic
Each city-state had an acropolis, or a fortified area
at the highest point in their city, where temples
were built. The Acropolis of Athens includes the
Parthenon, the temple of the goddess Athena,
that symbolizes classical Greek architecture.
The Athenian Acropolis contains examples of
Corinthian Doric
the three main styles, or “orders,” of Greek
architecture:
• The Doric order, which is plain, severe, and
dignified, was the earliest style. The Parthenon
uses the Doric order.
• The Ionic order, which is more light, delicate,
and complex, came into wide use about a
century after the Doric order.
• The Corinthian order was the latest and most
elaborate style, featuring decorations of leaves
and scrolls.
Facade of the Parthenon, 447-432 BC.
Callicrates and Ictinus. Acropolis, Athens.
PREVIEW Big Ideas of Ancient Greece
The Tragic
1 2 3
The Heroic Ideal The Good Life
Vision
Organized into small, Greek civilization sought to The Greeks of Athens
fiercely independent city- discover what constitutes invented drama, which they
states, the Greeks shared a the good life. Introducing used to explore vital social
cultural heritage. One of personal values into litera- and religious questions.
the key elements of this ture, Greek lyric poets such Athenian dramatists such
heritage was the works of as Sappho explored what as Sophocles created
Homer, whose epic poems mattered personally to powerful, darkly beautiful
provided models of heroic them. Greek philosophers visions of human destiny,
behavior. such as Socrates ques- as well as tragic heroes,
tioned traditional values in whose character flaws
See page 186
an attempt to determine partly contributed to their
how individuals should downfall.
behave.
See page 188
See page 187
INTRODUCTION 185
(t)Bettmann/CORBIS; (b)Bridgeman Art Library
Big Idea 1
The Heroic Ideal
D
ifferent societies develop different
concepts of the hero. Some cultures value “Throw forward your chest
a simple heroic ideal, such as that of the
To the enemy;
warrior or the saint; other cultures celebrate a
complex and multi-faceted ideal of heroism, such Keep close in the attack;
as that of the “Renaissance man,” an individual
Move back not an inch.
known for excellence in several different fields.
The Greek heroic ideal was based on the aristo- But never crow in victory,
cratic warrior but valued an all-round excellence,
Nor mope hangdog in loss.”
the ability to do well at whatever was required,
from sailing a ship to delivering a speech.
—Archilochus,
from “Soul, Soul”
Homeric Epics
At the foundation of Greek literature stand the
epic poems of Homer (see page 192), set in a leg- The Pursuit of Excellence
endary “Heroic Age” and retelling stories of war
A Greek hero strove to realize his human poten-
and adventure. To the ancient Greeks, Homer was
tial, to achieve personal excellence, which the
not only the greatest poet and the authority for
Greeks called arête. Arête could mean different
their early history, he was also their moral teacher.
things in different contexts. In a racehorse, arête
The Iliad and the Odyssey were used in schools to
meant speed; in a cart-horse, strength; in a hero,
teach Greek students the values of loyalty, cour-
complete development of qualities such as physi-
age, and honor. These ideals influenced the
cal strength, intellectual ability, and moral force
following lines from Archilochus, a Greek poet
(such as bravery and endurance). As the classical
who was also a mercenary soldier.
historian H. D. F. Kitto observes, Homer’s hero
Odysseus “is a great fighter, a wily schemer, a
ready speaker, a man of stout heart and broad wis-
dom who knows that he must endure without too
much complaining what the gods send.” Similarly,
in the Iliad, Achilles develops his potential to the
highest degree. This hero, noble of soul, is a skill-
ful speaker, a great fighter, and a swift runner.
Heroes typically displayed arête in a struggle or
contest on the athletic field or in battle. Through
his willingness to fight, the hero protected his
family and friends, preserved his honor, and
earned his reputation.
Reading Check
Ulysses as Archer, c.450-440 BC. Penelope Vasepainter.
Make Generalizations How would you summa-
Red figured Attic skyphos. Antikensammlung, Staatliche
rize the ancient Greeks’ meaning of arête?
Museen zu Berlin, Germany.
186 UNIT 2 ANCIENT GREECE
Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY
Big Idea 2
The Good Life
W
hat can humans do to create better
lives for themselves? Is happiness
found in family life, in passion, in the
natural world, or in the pursuit of wisdom or art?
The ancient Greeks sought to discover what
constitutes the good life.
Greek Lyric Poetry
The Homeric epics are objective and impersonal
in that the poet seldom introduces personal feel-
ings into the narrative. Later Greek poets such as
Sappho (sa(cid:1)fō) (see pages 241–247), however,
created a different kind of poetry that dealt with
Seated Girl with Dove, 2nd half 4th century BC. Late
the concerns of individuals and everyday life.
Classical Greek. Terracotta, height:. 21.4 cm.
Sappho’s lyric poetry celebrates the beauty of the
Antikensammlung, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Germany.
world, the pleasures (and pains) of love, the joys
of family life, and the power of art to transcend
Among the critics of the Sophists was the philoso-
death.
pher Socrates (sok(cid:1)rə tē z). Because he left no
writings, we know about him primarily through
Greek Philosophy
the works of his pupil, Plato (plā (cid:1)tō) . Socrates’
The Greek emphasis on the human experience teaching approach, known as the Socratic
gave rise to systematic questioning and observa- method, used a question-and-answer format to
tion of the world at large. As a result, the Greeks lead pupils to discover the truth. Socrates believed
made great advances in science, medicine, and individuals could discover the truth within them-
philosophy. Philosophy is the methodical use of selves through rational inquiry.
reason to discover the truth. The term derives
Besides Socrates and Plato, other notable Greek
from a Greek word meaning “love of wisdom.”
thinkers include
The Sophists were an influential group of ancient
• Hippocrates (hi pok(cid:1)rə tē z), who trained
Greek philosophers who taught that there was no
doctors to look into the causes of disease.
absolute right or wrong. Many Greeks viewed the
Sophists as dangerous, especially to young people, • Aristotle (aŕis tot(cid:1)əl), who systematized the
because of their moral relavitism. study of science.
• Herodotus (hə rod(cid:1)ə təs), who established
the idea that history could be studied as a
“The unexamined life collection of true facts, rather than a series
of legends.
is not worth living.”
—Plato, the Apology Reading Check
Compare and Contrast How did Socrates differ
from the Sophists?
INTRODUCTION 187
Bildarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz/Art Resource, NY
Big Idea 3
The Tragic Vision
W
hat contributes most to human unhap- his family after his return from the Trojan War. In
piness? Do evil deeds bring about these plays, evil breeds more evil and greater
suffering, or is misery primarily the suffering. Yet in the end, reason triumphs over the
result of an error in judgment? The ancient Greek forces of blood-guilt and revenge.
dramatists pondered these questions.
Athenian Drama “Count no man happy till he dies,
One of the great Greek achievements was drama, free of pain at last.”
created by the Athenians. In Athens, tragedies
were performed at religious festivals and often —Sophocles, Oedipus the King
explored the relationship between humans and
the gods. In the process, they raised important
questions about life. The first Greek tragedies Sophocles (sof(cid:1)ə klē z) (see pages 250–318),
were presented in a trilogy, or a set of three plays, another Athenian playwright, composed Oedipus
that explored a common theme. For example, the King. In this timeless tragedy, a plague sent by
Aeschylus (es(cid:1)kə ləs) composed the Oresteia, a the gods ravages the people of Thebes. Oedipus,
trilogy that relates the fate of Agamemnon and the king of Thebes, diligently tries to relieve his
people of the plague but in the process discovers a
horrifying truth about himself.
The Nature of Tragedy
Central to Greek tragedy is the fall of a great man
(or woman, though in ancient Greece her part
would have been acted by a man)—the tragic
hero, whose fate is partly brought about by a flaw
within his or her own character. The tragic hero’s
aim was to inspire audiences to examine their own
lives, to define their beliefs, and to cleanse their
emotions of pity and terror through compassion
for the character. Greek tragedies were so insight-
ful and complex that they continue to be relevant
today. They have profoundly influenced the
Western literary tradition.
Reading Check
Analyze Cause-and-Effect Relationships How did
Oedipus visiting the Sphinx, 5th century BC. Attic red figure
kylix (drinking cup). Museo Gregoriano Etrusco, Vatican the experience of drama help the ancient Greeks
Museums, Vatican State. deal with their problems?
188 UNIT 2 ANCIENT GREECE
Scala/Art Resource, NY
Wrap-Up
Kelly Holmes celebrates
as she crosses the finish
line to win the Olympics
women’s 1500 metres,
Legacy of the Period
2004. Mike Blake. Athens.
The ancient Greeks laid the intellectual and
cultural foundations of Western civilization. They
debated basic questions about the nature of the
Cultural and Literary Links
universe, the purpose of life, and the meaning of
truth. The Greeks not only strove to answer these Greek mythology has provided a rich treasury
questions, they also created a logical method for of narratives and characters for Western art and
exploring them—philosophy. literature. Even some scientific concepts, such
as the Oedipus complex and the Gaia hypothe-
The Greeks were the first to use reason to explain
sis, are named after Greek myths.
natural phenomena. In other words, they were the
first scientists. The Greek philosopher Aristotle Homer remains one of the most influential
wrote on a number of scientific subjects, including authors in world literature. His epic poems
astronomy, geology, biology, and physics. Until the have inspired countless works, from the Aeneid
seventeenth century, science in the Western world by the Roman poet Virgil to Omeros by the
remained largely based on Aristotle’s ideas. Caribbean Nobel Prize laureate Derek Walcott.
In general, the Greeks established one of the In a.d. 393, the Romans banned the ancient
bedrock values of Western civilization—the Olympic Games. In the summer of 1896,
importance of the individual. Athenians founded however, the first modern Olympics took place
democracy, proclaiming the right of ordinary in Athens.
individuals to govern themselves.
Literature Online
Unit Resources For additional skills practice, go to
glencoe.com and enter QuickPass code GLW6053u2.
Activities Use what you have learned about the
period to do one of these activities.
1. Follow Up Go back to Looking Ahead on 4. Take Notes You might try using this graphic
page 179 and answer the questions. organizer to keep track of the three Big Ideas
in this part.
2. Contrast Literary Periods Working with other
students, hold a panel discussion about how
THREE-POCKET BOOK
one of this period’s Big Ideas still influences
American culture today. You can use examples
fortohmer liktienrdastu oref ,a fritniset iac ret,x mpruessisci,o mn.ovies, or Big Id e a Big Id e a Big Id e a
1 2 3
3. Build Visual Literacy Create a display of
images of modern buildings that reflect the
influence of Greek architecture.
INTRODUCTION 189
Mike Blake/Reuters/CORBIS
Before You Read
Ancient Greece
Pericles’ Funeral Oration
Meet Thucydides
(c. 460–c. 404 (cid:1).(cid:2).)
O
ne of the greatest historians of the
Western world was also one of the
first—Thucydides (tho ̄̄ō ̄ sid(cid:1)ə dē ź).
Little is known about his life; even the dates of
his birth and death must be inferred from refer-
ences in his writing. He was likely born in or
near Athens to a wealthy, upper-class family. In
424 b.c., Thucydides was elected one of the ten
strategoi, or high-ranking military leaders,
of the year. He was put in command of the ended with the defeat of Athens in 404 b.c. and
Athenian fleet based in the northern Aegean the eclipse of Athenian civilization.
Sea. His responsibility was to defend the city of
Thucydides, who began this work just before
Amphipolis. When the Spartans captured the
431 b.c., told his readers he believed the war
city, Thucydides was sent into exile. He
would be “more worthy of relation than any
returned to Athens after the war ended and is
that had preceded it.” In his attempt to present
believed to have died shortly thereafter.
an accurate account, he interviewed partici-
pants and eyewitnesses from both sides, sifted
through statements others had made, and
“I shall be content if [the History
presented his results in concise, chronological
of the Peloponnesian War] is order. He often reported the exact words of
significant political speeches, including Pericles’
judged useful by those inquirers who
funeral oration. Thucydides is celebrated as the
desire an exact knowledge of the first historian to apply truly rigorous standards
past as an aid to the interpretation of accuracy to his work.
of the future . . .” Thucydides never completed the History: his
account stops abruptly more than six years
—Thucydides from Book I, before the war ended. This abruptness has led to
History of the Peloponnesian War speculation that he may have died suddenly—
and perhaps violently—a victim of social
upheaval after the war.
His Life’s Work Thucydides’ History of the
Peloponnesian War, his life’s work, narrates the
conflict between Athens and Sparta in the fifth
Literature Online
century b.c. At that time Greece was a collec-
tion of city-states, each with its own govern- Author Search For more about Thucydides, go to
glencoe.com and enter QuickPass code GLW6053u2.
ment and sphere of influence. The struggle
320 UNIT 2 ANCIENT GREECE
Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY
Learning Objectives
Literature and Reading Preview
For pages 320–332
Connect to the Speech In studying this text, you will
focus on the following
Why do some speeches continue to inspire people through
objectives:
the ages? Write a journal entry in which you describe the
Literary Study: Analyzing
qualities of a memorable speech you have heard or read.
argument.
Build Background Reading: Analyzing rhetorical
devices.
The most powerful city-state in Greece in the fifth century (cid:1).(cid:2).
Listening and Speaking:
was Athens. The enduring achievements of Athens owe much Delivering a speech.
to the leadership of Pericles, who was elected more than
fifteen times to the office of general. Shortly after the outbreak
of the war with Sparta in 431 (cid:1).(cid:2)., Pericles delivered this
eulogy to honor those slain in battle.
Set Purposes for Reading
Vocabulary
Big Idea The Heroic Ideal incredulous (in krej(cid:1)ə ləs) adj.
doubting; skeptical; p. 323 The
As you read, notice how Pericles’ eulogy reflects the heroic
incredulous crowd doubted the
ideal of the ancient Greeks. Ask yourself, What qualities does
speaker’s foolish claims.
Pericles consider heroic?
versatility (vuŕsə til(cid:1)ə tē) n.
Argument
Literary Element ability to do many things well;
Argument is a type of persuasive writing or speaking in which p. 326 The athlete showed versatility
reason is used to influence ideas or actions. Pericles includes by excelling in several sports.
several arguments in his eulogy to the Athenian war dead. As
tangible (tan(cid:1)jə bəl) adj. real;
you read, ask yourself, What is his purpose for including them?
actual; definite; p. 326 The guard
saw tangible evidence of damage.
Analyze Rhetorical Devices
Reading Strategy
consummation (końsə mā (cid:1)
Rhetoric is the art of using language to present facts and
shən) n. end; completion; p. 327
ideas to persuade an audience. Rhetorical devices are
The author’s consummation of his
techniques speakers and authors use to evoke an emotional
life’s work was a trilogy of novels.
response in the audience. Rhetorical devices include the use of
repetition, connotative words, parallelism, and emotional appeals. commiserate (kə miz(cid:1)ə rāt ́) v.
sympathize with; pity; p. 329 I
Tip: Take Notes In a chart like the one below, identify can commiserate with you during
examples of rhetorical devices as you read the eulogy. this difficult time.
Example Rhetorical Devices Purpose
the words “honor,” Connotative words To reinforce the idea
“courage,” and and repetition of Athenian nobility
“valiant/valiantly” and the justness of
its cause
THUCYDIDES 321