The Wars of Spanish American Independence 1809–29

95 Pages·18.93 MB·English

by  John Fletcher

Essential Histories
The War s of Spanish
American Independence
1809–29
John Fletcher
© Osprey Publishing • www.ospreypublishing.com
Essential Histories
The Wars of Spanish
American Independence
1809–29
© Osprey Publishing • www.ospreypublishing.com
Essential Histories
The Wars of Spanish
American Independence
1809–29
John Fletcher
© Osprey Publishing • www.ospreypublishing.com
Contents
Introduction 7
Chronology 9
Backgroundtowar
A creaking empire 12
Thewarringsides
“Fight and you shall win” 19
Outbreak
Loyal revolutionaries 26
Thefighting
“War to the death” 33
Portraitofasoldier
William Miller 63
Theworldaroundwar
Anarchy and opportunity 68
Portraitofacivilian
Francisco José de Caldas 75
Howthewarended
“The peoples are tired and want
nothing but peace and order” 79
Conclusion and consequences 85
Bibliography 92
Index 94
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Introduction
TheWarsofSpanishAmericanIndependence ofMexico,Panama,Venezuela,Colombia,
wereaseriesofsimultaneousconflictsin Ecuador,Peru,Bolivia,Chile,andArgentina
Spain’sNorthandSouthAmericancolonies intoexistence.Britain,theUnitedStatesof
between1809and1829.Startedbythe America,andFrancebenefitedfromthe
samesetofcauses,theywerefoughtalmost declineofSpanishinfluencethrough
entirelyindependentlywithineachofthe increasedtrade,influenceand,inthe
fourviceroyaltiesthatcomprisedSpanish caseoftheUnitedStates,territory.
America.Thosewhofoughtforindependence TheRoyalistcausewascomplicatedbythe
werecalledPatriots,whilethosewhofought strugglewithinSpainbetweenConservative
forthecontinuationofSpanishrulewere AbsolutistsandLiberalConstitutionalists.
calledRoyalists.Ultimately,Patriotsprevailed
ineachviceroyaltyandattheendofthe BatalladeMaipú(detail),1904,byPedroSubercaseaux
(1880–1956).Thewarsofindependence,whichdivided
warstheonlycoloniesremaininginSpanish
Americansbycaste,region,andpoliticalphilosophy,
possessionwereCubaandPuertoRico.The
wereasmuchcivilwarsasrebellionsagainstSpain.
conflictsmarkedtheendofSpain’sposition (MuseoHistóricoNacional,Chile;photographby
asaworldpowerandbroughtthenations MarcoBenavente)
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8 EssentialHistories•TheWarsofSpanishAmericanIndependence1809–29
Constitutionalistsbelievedcorruptionin asmallermajorityofCreoleswerePatriots.
theroyalfamilywasthecauseofSpain’s Beingatthetopoftheeconomicandsocial
declineandsoughttoinstallaconstitutional pyramid,thesegroups’divisionsreflected
monarchy,whileAbsolutistsstrovetorestore whostoodtogainorlosethemostfrom
theoldmonarchywithoutchange.During thewar’soutcome.Amongthelowercastes,
thewarseachfactionheldpowertwice, thesituationwashighlydependentonthe
leadingtoconfusionandconflictamong regionandtheyear.Bothsidesmadeappeals
Royalistofficialsinthecolonies.Royalist todrawthelowercastestotheirownbanner.
rankswerefurtherstrainedbytensions RoyalistsusedlawsendingIndiantribute,
betweennewlyarrivingofficersfrom religion,andthesemi-mythicalstatusof
SpainandveteranofficersinAmerica. thekingtoattractfollowers,whilePatriots
AmericanofficersfoundtheirnewSpanish proposedlegalequalityandemancipation
counterpartstobearrogantandignorant ofslavesinexchangeforservice.Inmany
ofAmericaanditspeople.Spanishofficers casesloyaltywassimplygiventoexisting
recentlyarrivingfromtheNapoleonicWars localleaders.
wereshockedbytheamateurtrainingofthe Despitetheparticipationofover40,000
Americancommandersandthebloodthirsty Spanishregularsand6,000BritishandIrish
wayinwhichtheyprosecutedthewar.The mercenaries,theoverwhelmingmajorityof
resultingrivalrieswerefataltotheRoyalist menwhofoughtthesewarswereAmericans.
causeinMexico,Venezuela,andPeru. OnthePatriotsidetwogenerals,Simón
ThePatriotcausewasdividedoverthe BolívarandJosédeSanMartín,emerged
territorialboundariesofthenewcountries asthegreatestmilitaryleaders,steadfastly
andconstitutionalissuesregardingthe remainingcommittedtotheirvisionthrough
strengthofcentralgovernmentwithin everytrial.Eventually,eachbecameknown
eachofthenewnations.Thedefinition as“TheLiberator.”Thecontributionsof
ofbordersreflectedtheinevitableregional blackandIndiansoldiersdeeplychallenged
differencesthatarosewithcolonizationof theracialpresumptionsandcastestructure
suchanimmensegeographicalareaand ofcolonialsociety,andadvancedtheend
thefactthathugeportionsoftheSpanish ofslaveryintheAmericas.
colonieswerebarelyexplored,letalone Thewarsdividedintofourphases.
settled,frontiers.Thequestionofcentral Phase1wastheinitialpushforindependence,
governmentsplitPatriotsintoFederalists, 1810–13.Thisphasewasmarkedbythe
thosewhowishedtoseeweakcentral declarationofindependenceofmost
governmentspresidingoverloose Patriotregionsandthefirstcampaigns
confederationsofstrongindividual todriveouttheSpanish.Phase2wasthe
states,andCentralists,whobelievedin Royalistreconquest,1814–17.Thisphase
astrongfederalgovernmentandlimited wasmarkedbythearrivalofSpanishtroops
states’rights.Ittooklessthantwoyears intheregionandthesuccessfuleffortsofthe
forthePatriotsinNewGranadatofallinto variousviceroysinreassertingtheauthority
civilwaroverthisveryissueandin1815a oftheCrownacrossalmosttheentireregion.
FederalLeagueformedinoppositiontothe Phase3wasthePatriottriumph,1818–24.
centralistpoliciesofRíodelaPlata.Besides Thisphasewasmarkedbyasnowballing
weakeningPatriotefforts,thesedivisions seriesofpoliticaleventsandPatriotvictories
ledtodecadesofinstabilityandwarfare thatsecuredindependence.Phase4was
afterindependence. consolidation,1825–29.Thisphasewas
Thewarswereinitiatedanddrivenby markedbythedefeatofthefinalRoyalist
membersoftheupperstrataofcolonial outpostsandemergingconflictwithinand
society:Peninsulares,whitesborninSpain, betweenthenewlyindependentstates,in
andCreoles,whitesborninthecolonies.The manycasesdirectlylinkedtothelegacyof
majorityofPeninsulareswereRoyalistswhile colonialism.
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Chronology
1807 NovemberFrenchtroopsinvade 1810 May25JuntaestablishedinBuenos
Portugal Aires,RíodelaPlata
May–JulyJuntasformedacross
1808 February10Frenchtroopbuild-up NewGranada
inSpain September16MiguelHidalgo
March18SpanishKingCharlesIV issues“GritodeDolores”inDolores,
abdicatesinfavorofhisson, NewSpain
FerdinandVII September18NationalJuntaformed
May2Anti-FrenchriotsinMadrid, inChile
Spain September22Quitodeclaresanother
May5Duringnegotiationsarbitrated junta
byFrenchEmperorNapoleon October11Quitojuntadeclares
Bonaparte,CharlesIVrescinds independence
abdicationwhileFerdinandVII October30Patriotvictoryatthebattle
abdicatesinfavorofCharlesIV; ofMontedelasCruces,NewSpain
CharlesIVthenre-abdicatesin November7Royalistvictoryatthe
favorofNapoleon battleofAculco,NewSpain
May6FerdinandVIIimprisoned
inBayonne,France;CharlesIV 1811 January17Royalistvictoryatthe
acceptsaFrenchpensionand battleofCalderónBridge,NewSpain
eventuallysettlesinRome, March9Royalistvictoryatthebattle
wherehediesonJanuary20, ofTacuarí,Paraguay
1819
July25Napoleonnameshis
brotherJosephkingofSpain;the
coloniesrefusetoacknowledge
Frenchrule
September25SupremeCentraland
GovernmentalJuntaofSpainandthe
IndiesformedinSeville,Spaintoresist
Franceandautonomouslyrulein
FerdinandVII’snameuntilhis
restoration
1809 May25JuntaformedinChuquisaca,
UpperPeru
July16JuntaformedinLaPaz,
UpperPeru BatalladeTacuarí,c.1856,byCarlosPabloRipamonti
August10JuntaformedinQuito, (1874–1968).Accordingtolegenda12-year-old
drummerboyguidedanofficerblindedbycannonfire
NewGranada
tosafetyduringthebattleofTacuarí.Theboyhimself
September–OctoberRoyalisttroops
waskilled.Mostlikelyfiction,thestorynevertheless
defeatLaPazandChuquisacajuntas sumsupthedeephumantolltakenbythewars.
December4RoyalisttroopsenterQuito (ArchivoGeneraldelaNación,Argentina)
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10 EssentialHistories•TheWarsofSpanishAmericanIndependence1809–29
firstbattleofSanMateo
March22FerdinandVIIrestoredto
throneandCádizConstitution
rescinded,Spain
March25Patriotvictoryatthe
secondbattleofSanMateo,Venezuela
May14RoyalistscaptureAntonio
NariñoinNewGranada
May28Patriotvictoryatthefirst
battleofCarabobo,Venezuela
June15Royalistvictoryatthesecond
battleofLaPuerta,Venezuela
June23Royalistssurrender
Montevideo,BandaOriental
July16RoyalistscaptureCaracas,
Venezuela;fallofSecondVenezuelan
Republic
BatalladeChacabuco,1863,byJoséTomásVandorsse. August14PabloMorilloplacedin
ThispaintingdepictstheclimacticPatriotcharge. Inthe chargeof10,000-manSpanish
foregroundthe7thand8thinfantryregimentsmove
expedition
forward,whilethehorsegrenadiersattackinthe
October1–2Royalistvictoryat
background.NoticethesegregatedPatriotunitsand
theinfantryingarrisoncapswhilethehorsegrenadiers thebattleofRancagua,Chile
wearshakos.(MuseoHistóricoNacional,Chile) December5Royalistvictoryatthe
battleofUrica,Venezuela
June20Royalistvictoryatthebattle
ofHuaqui,UpperPeru 1815 May8BolívarexiledtoHaiti
July5Venezueladeclaresindependence April7PabloMorillo’s“Expedicion
July30Hidalgoisexecutedin Pacificadora”arrivesinVenezuela
Chihuahua,NewSpain August–DecemberRoyalistvictoryat
November11Independencedeclared siegeofCartagena,NewGrenada
inCartagena,NewGranada November28Royalistvictoryatthe
battleofViluma(SipeSipe),Upper
1812 March19CádizConstitution,Spain Peru(Bolivia)
July25FirstVenezuelanRepublic
capitulates 1816 MayMorillocompletesreconquest
ofNewGranada
1813 February–August“Admirable May8Bolívarvoluntarilyexiles
Campaign,”Venezuela himselftoJamaica,thenHaiti
March15Bolívardeclares“Warto July9Independencedeclaredbythe
theDeath,”Venezuela UnitedProvincesoftheRíodelaPlata
August7BolívardeclaresSecond August28Portugese/Braziliantroops
VenezuelanRepublic invadeBandaOriental
November14Royalistvictoryatthe
battleofAyohuma,UpperPeru 1817 February12Patriotvictoryatthe
December5Patriotvictoryatthe battleofChacabuco,Chile
battleofAraure,Venezuela July17PatriotscaptureAngostura,
Venezuela
1814 February3Royalistvictoryatthe
firstbattleofLaPuerta,Venezuela 1818 March16Royalistvictoryatthethird
February28Patriotvictoryatthe battleofLaPuerta,Venezuela
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Chronology 11
April5Patriotvictoryatthebattleof 1823 July24Patriotvictoryatthebattleof
Maipú,Chile LakeMaracaibo
September23FerdinandVIIrestored
1819 August7Patriotvictoryatthebattle andCádizConstitutionrescindedin
ofBoyacá,NewGranada Spain
December17CongressofAngostura December2USAproclaimsMonroe
declarescreationofGranColombia Doctrine
1820 January1RiegoRevolt,Spain 1824 December9Patriotvictoryatthe
January22Portuguesevictoryatthe battleofAyacucho,Peru
battleofTacuarembó,BandaOriental
February1ThebattleofCepedamarks 1825 April1Patriotvictoryatthebattleof
thebeginningofcivilwarinUnited Tumulsa,UpperPeru
ProvincesoftheRíodelaPlata October12Uruguayanvictoryover
March10CádizConstitution Brazilianforcesatthebattleof
restored,Spain Sarandí(inBrazil,previouslypart
November26–27Trucebetween ofBandaOriental)
BolívarandMorillo;“Wartothe
Death”rescinded 1826 January15Royalistgarrison
December17MorilloreturnstoSpain surrenders,Chiloé,Chile
January22Royalistgarrison
1821 June24Patriotvictoryatthesecond surrenders,Callao,Peru
battleofCarabobo,Venezuela
September27AgustíndeIturbide 1829 July27–September11Mexican
entersMexicoCityanddeclares victoryatthebattleofTampico,
Mexicanindependence Mexico
1822 April7Patriotvictoryatthebattleof
Bombona,NewGranada LosArtillerosdeBorgoñoenlabatalladeMaipú,1943,by
PedroSubercaseaux(1880–1956).Theexperthandling
May24Patriotvictoryatthebattle
ofthisPatriotartillerybatterywascrucialtostopping
ofPichincha,Quito
aRoyalistcounterattackandturningthetideofthe
July26–27SanMartínandBolívar battle.(MuseoHistóricoNacional,Chile;photograph
meetatthe“EntrevistadeGuayaquil” byMarcoBenavente)
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Background to war
A creaking empire
InthepredawnhoursofAugust1,1806,
asmallfleetofshipsdisembarkedabout600
armedAmericanandBritishnationals,along
withoneVenezuelan,nearCoro,Venezuela.
Thetroopsformedthevanguardofanarmy
ofliberation.TheVenezuelan,Franciscode
Miranda,wastheircommander.Miranda
wasanexiledVenezuelanCreoleandtireless
advocateforindependence.Hewas56years
oldandaveteranoftheSpanishandFrench
armies,havingbegunhiscareerasacaptain
andendingitageneral.Hehadservedin
Africa,theAmericanRevolutionaryWar,and
theFrenchRevolutionaryWars,andgaineda
reputationasabraveandcapableofficer.He
waswellknownthroughoutthecapitalsof
theworldbut,after30yearsabroad,was GeneralísimoFranciscodeMiranda,1899,byEmilioJacinto
avirtualstrangertohisowncountry. Mauri(1885–1908).MirandawasarisingstarintheFrench
Mirandahadlongagodeducedthat RevolutionaryWarsuntilhefellfouloftheTerror.His
confidentgeneralshipintheLowCountriesduring1792
VenezuelaneededtobefreeofSpanish
and1793standsincontrasttohismeekperformancein
rule.HeloathedtherestrictionsofSpanish
Venezuelain1812.(PalacioFederalLegislativo,Venezuela)
government,thestiflingoftradeand
ideasthatkeptVenezuelabackwardsand
preventedthecolonyfromdevelopingto andbeatanignominiousretreatbackinto
itsfullpotential.Duringhisyearsabroadhe exile.Whentheroyalauthoritiesreasserted
hadreceivedcountlesslettersfromwealthy control,theydiscoveredapileofmanifestos
Creolesthatreinforcedhisview.Clearly Mirandahadprinted,includingthebanned
thepeopleofVenezuela–indeed,ofall “DeclarationoftheRightsofMan”–noone
theSpanishcolonies–wouldriseuponhis hadbotheredtodistributethem,muchless
arrivalandclaimtheirnaturalplaceinthe readthem.Suchwasthefervorfor
Enlightenment-inspiredrealmsoffreetrade independenceinlate1806.
andfreenations. Miranda’sexperiencewashardlyunique.
Tohisdismay,hefoundCoronearly Afterthreecenturiesofrule,Spanish
deserted;notonlyhadthegarrisonfled, officialshadbecomeadeptatdefusing
sohadmostofthepopulace.Afterten colonialgrievancesbyisolatinggroups
frustratingdaysofissuingbombastic andgeographicallycontainingdisruptions
decreestoadesertedtown,Mirandarealized oruprisings.This“divideandrule”strategy
hisfundamentalerror:thecomplaintsof startedwithanexceedinglycomplex,racially
hiswealthyCreolecontactswerenotthe basedcastesystem.Theinhabitantsofthe
grievancesofthemasses.As1,500Spanish coloniesweredividedintogroups,eachof
troopsgatheredoutsidethetownand whichwasgivenitsownsetsoflawsand
additionalreinforcementshurriedforward restrictions,includingtherightsitsmembers
fromCaracas,Mirandasullenlyre-embarked possessed,theoccupationstheycould
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